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University  of  California. 


FROM   THE    LIBRARY   OF 

Dr.  JOSEPH    LeCONTE, 

GIFT  OF  MRS.    LECONTE. 

EARTH 

No.  SCIENCES 
LIBRARY 


.***" 


y 


X' 


}      4. 


J^/.-'Al'^Q 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


PHYSICAL 


GEOGEAPHY. 


BY 


MARY  SOMERVILLE, 

AUTHOR    OF    "THE    CONNECTION    OF    THE    PHYSICAL    SCIENCES;" 
"MECHANISM    OF    THE    HEAVENS." 


PHILADELPHIA 


LEA    AND    BLANCHARD 


1848. 


TO 


SIR  JOHN  F.  W.  HER8CHEL,  BART.,  K.H., 

&c.        &c. 

Dear  Sir  John, 

I  AVAIL  myself  with  pleasure  of  your  permission  to  dedicate  my 
book  to  you,  as  it  gives  me  an  opportunity  of  expressing  my  admira- 
tion of  your  talents,  and  my  sincere  estimation  of  your  friendship. 

I  remain,  with  great  regard. 
Yours  truly, 

Mary  Somerville. 


London  J  29th  February  ^  1848. 


1* 


1 U  i.  b  J_  o 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
Geology    ......  .  .     Page  13 

CHAPTER  n. 

Form  of  the  Great  Continent — The  High  Lands  of  the  Great  Continent :  the 
Atlas,  Spanish,  French,  and  German  Mountains — The  Alps,  Balkan,  and 
Apennines     .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .33 

CHAPTER  HI. 

The  High  Lands  of  the  Great  Continent  (^coiithuied) — The  Caucasus — 'J'he 
Western  Asiatic  Table-land  and  its  Mountains  .  .  .47 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  High  Lands  of  the  Great  Continent  (continued) — The  Oriental  Table- 
land and  its  Mountains  .  .  .  .  .  .52 

CHAPTER  V. 

Secondary  Mountain  Systems  of  the  Great  Continent — That  of  Scandinavia 
— Great  Britain  and  Ireland — The  Ural  Mountains — The  Great  Northern 
Plain  .  .  .  •  .  .  .  .64 


( 


8  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

The  Southern  Low  Tjands  of  tho  Great  Continent,  with  their  Secondary 
Table-lands  and  Mountains    .  .  .  .  •  .73 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Africa  :    Table-land — Cape   of  Good    Hope   and   Eastern    Coast— Western 
(joast — Abyssinia — ^Senegambia — Low  Lands  and  Deserts    .  .     80 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

American  Continent — The  Mountains  of  South  America — The  Andes — The 
Mountains  of  the  Parima  and  Brazil  .  .  •  .88 


CHAPTER  IX. 

The  I>ow  Lands  of  South  America — Desert  of  Patagonia — The  Pampas  of 
Buenos  Ayres — The  Silvas  of  the  Amazons — The  Llanos  of  the  Orinoco 
and  Venezuela — Geological  Notice  .   .  i  .  •      103 


(^APTER  X.  ; 

Central  America — West  Indian  Islands — Geological  Notice     .  .110  ; 

CHAPTER  XL 

North  America— Table-land  and  Mountans  of  Mexico — The  Rocky  Moun- 
tains — The  Maritime  Chain  and  Mountains  of  Russian  America      .     116  j 

i 

CHAPTER  XIL 

I 

North  America  {continued)  : — The  Great  Central  Plain  or  Valley  of  the  ^ 

Mississippi — The  Alleghany  Mountains — The  Atlantic  Slope— The  Atlan- 
tic Plain — Geological  Notice  .  .  •  .  .     120  ^ 

I 

CHAPTER  XIIL 

Greenland — Spitzbergen — Iceland — Jan  Mayen's  Land — Antarctic  Lands — 
Victoria  Continent .  .  .  .  .  .  .129 


CONTENTS.  9 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

The  Continent  of  Australia — Tasmania,  or  Van  Diemen's  Land — New  Zea- 
land— New  Guinea — Borneo — Atolls — Encircling  Reefs — Coral  Reefs — 
Barrier  Reefs — Volcanic  Islands — Areas  of  Subsidence  and  Elevation  in 
the  Bed  of  the  Pacific — Active  Volcanoes    .  .  .  .137 


CHAPTER  XV. 

The  Ocean — Its  Size,  Colour,  Pressure,  and  Saltness — Tides,  Waves,  and 
Currents — Temperature — North  and  South  Polar  Ice — Inland  Seas     157 


CHAPTER  XVr. 

Springs — Basins  of  the  Ocean — Origin,  Course,  and  Floods  of  Rivers — Hy- 
draulic Systems  of  Europe — African  rivers:  The  Nile,  Niger,  &c.       176 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

Asiatic  Rivers — Euphrates  and  Tigris — River  Systems  south  of  the  Hima- 
laya— Chinese  Rivers — Siberian  Rivers        .  .  .  .191 


CHAPTER  XVni. 

River  Systems  of  North  America — Rivers  of  Central  America — Rivers  of 
South  America,  and  of  Australia      .....     202 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

Lakes — Northern  System  of  the  Great  Continent — Mountain  System  of  the 
same — American  Lakes        .  .  .  ,  .  .212 


CHAPTER  XX. 

The  Atmosphere         .  ,  .  .  .  .  .     220 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

Vegetation — The  Nourishment  and  Growth  of  Plants     Classes — Botanical 
Districts      ........     227 


10  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

Vegetation  of  the  Great  Continent — Of  the  Arctic  Islands — And  of  the  Arc- 
tic and  North  Temperate  Regions  of  Europe  and  Ada         .  .     240 


CHAPTER  xxnr. 

Flora  of  Tropical  Asia — Of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  India,  and  Arahia     253 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

African  Flora — Flora  of  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Norfolk  Island,  and  of 
Polynesia    ........     259 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

American  Vegetation — Flora  of  North,  Central,  and  South  America — An- 
tarctic Flora — Marine  Vegetation     .....     270 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 
Distribution  of  Insects  ......     288 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

Distribution  of  Fishes,  and  of  the  Marine  Mammalia,  Phocae,  Dolphins,  and 
Whales        ........     293 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

Distribution  of  Reptiles — Frogs  and  Toads — Snakes,  Saurians,  and   Tor- 
toises ........     306 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 

Distribution  of  Birds  in  the  Arctic  Regions — In  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  Ame- 
rica, and  the  Antarctic  Regions       .  .  .  .  .316 


CONTENTS. 


11 


(;hapter  XXX. 


Distribution  of  Mammalia  throughout  the  Earth 


336 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 


The  Distribution,  Coudition,  and  Future  Prospects  of  the  Human  Race     356 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GEOLOGY. 


The  change  produced  in  the  civilized  world  within  a  few 
years,  by  the  application  of  the  powers  of  nature  to  locomo- 
tion, is  so  astonishing,  that  it  leads  to  a  consideration  of  the 
influence  of  man  on  the  material  world,  his  relation  with 
regard  to  animate  and  inanimate  beings,  and  the  causes 
which  have  had  the  greatest  effect  on  the  physical,  moral, 
and  intellectual  condition  of  the  human  race. 

The  former  state  of  our  terrestrial  habitation,  the  succes- 
sive convulsions  which  have  ultimately  led  to  its  present 
geographical  arrangement,  and  to  the  actual  distribution  of 
land  and  water,  so  powerfully  influential  on  the  destinies  of 
mankind,  are  circumstances  of  primary  importance. 

The  position  of  the  earth  with  regard  to  the  sun,  its  con- 
nexion with  the  bodies  of  the  solar  system,  together  with  its 
size  and  form,  have  been  noticed  by  the  author  elsewhere. 
It  was  there  shown  that  our  globe  forms  but  an  atom  in  the 
immensity  of  space,  utterly  invisible  from  the  nearest  fixed 
star,  and  scarcely  a  telescopic  object  to  the  remote  planets  of 
our  own  system.  The  increase  of  temperature  with  the  depth 
below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  the  tremendous  desola- 
tion hurled  over  wide  regions  by  numerous  fire-breathing 
mountains,  show  that  man  is  removed  but  a  few  miles  from 
immense  lakes  or  seas  of  liquid  fire.  The  very  shell  on 
which  he  stands  is  unstable  under  his  feet,  not  only  from 
those  temporary  convulsions  that  seem  to  shake  the  globe 
to  its  centre,  but  from  a  slow  almost  imparceptible  elevation 
in  some  places^  apd  an  equally  gentle  subsidence  in  others, 
2 


14  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

as  if  the  internal  molten  matter  were  subject  to  secular  tides, 
now  heaving  and  now  ebbing,  or  that  the  subjacent  rocks 
were  in  one  place  expanded  and  in  another  contracted  by 
changes  of  temperature. 

The  earthquake  and  the  torrent,  the  august  and  terrible 
ministers  of  Almighty  power,  have  torn  the  solid  earth  and 
opened  the  seals  of  the  most  ancient  records  of  creation, 
written  in  indelible  characters  on  *'  the  perpetual  hills,  and 
the  everlasting  mountains."  There  we  read  of  the  changes 
that  have  brought  the  rude  mass  to  its  present  fair  state,  and 
of  the  myriads  of  beings  that  have  appeared  on  this  mortal 
stage,  have  fulfilled  their  destinies,  and  have  been  swept 
from  existence  to  make  way  for  new  races  which,  in  their 
turn,  have  vanished  from  the  scene  till  the  creation  of  man 
completed  the  glorious  work.  Who  shall  define  the  periods 
of  those  mornings  and  evenings  when  God  saw  that  his  work 
was  good  ?  and  who  shall  declare  the  time  allotted  to  the 
human  race,  when  the  generations  of  the  most  insignificant 
insect  existed  for  unnumbered  ages?  Yet  man  is  also  to 
vanish  in  the  ever-changino;  course  of  events.  The  earth 
is  to  be  burnt  up,  and  the  elements  are  to  melt  with  fervent 
heat — to  be  again  reduced  to  chaos — possibly  to  be  renovated 
and  adorned  for  other  races  of  beings.  These  stupendous 
changes  may  be  but  cycles  in  those  great  laws  of  the  uni- 
verse, where  all  is  variable  but  the  laws  themselves  and  He 
who  has  ordained  them. 

The  earth  consists  of  a  great  variety  of  substances,  some 
of  which  occur  in  amorphous  masses,  others  are  disposed  in 
regular  layers  or  strata,  either  horizontal  or  inclined  at  all 
angles  to  the  horizon.  By  mining,  man  has  penetrated  only 
a  very  little  way,  but  by  reasoning  from  the  dip  or  inclina- 
tion of  the  strata  at  or  near  the  surface,  and  from  other  cir- 
cumstances, he  has  obtained  a  pretty  accurate  idea  of  the 
structure  of  our  globe  to  the  depth  of  about  ten  miles.  All 
the  substances  of  which  we  have  any  information  are  divided 
into  four  classes,  distinguished  by  the  manner  in  which  they 
have  been  formed,  namely — Plutonic  and  Volcanic  rocks, 
both  of  igneous  origin,  though  produced  under  different 
circumstances  ;  Aqueous  or  Stratified  rocks,  entirely  due  to 
the  action  of  water,  as  the  name  implies  ;  and  Metamorphic 
rocks,  deposited  also  by  water,  according  to  the  opinion  of 
many  eminent  geologists,  and  consequently  stratified,  but 


GEOLOGY.  15 

subsequently  altered  and  crystallized  by  heat.  The  Aqueous 
and  Volcanic  rocks  are  formed  at  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
the  Plutonic  and  Metamorphic  at  great  depths,  but  all  of 
them  have  originated  simultaneously  during  every  geological 
period,  and  are  now  in  a  state  of  slow  and  constant  progress. 
The  antagonist  principles  of  fire  and  water  have  ever  been 
and  still  are  the  cause  of  the  perpetual  vicissitudes  to  which 
the  crust  of  the  earth  is  liable. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  observation  that  the  Plutonic 
rocks,  consisting  of  the  granites  and  some  of  the  porphyries, 
were  formed  in  the  deep  and  fiery  caverns  of  the  earth,  of 
melted  matter,  which  crystallized  as  it  slowly  cooled  under 
enormous  pressure,  and  was  then  heaved  in  unstratified 
masses  by  the  elastic  force  of  the  internal  heat  even  to  the 
tops  of  the  highest  mountains,  or  forced  in  a  semifluid  state 
into  fissures  of  the  superincumbent  strata,  sometimes  into 
the  cracks  of  previously  formed  granite  ;  for  that  rock,  which 
constitutes  the  base  of  so  large  a  portion  of  the  earth's  crust, 
has  not  been  all  formed  at  once  ;  some  portions  had  been 
solid  while  others  were  yet  in  a  liquid  state.  This  class  of 
rocks  is  completely  destitute  of  fossil  remains. 

Although  granite  and  the  volcanic  rocks  are  both  due  to 
the  action  of  fire,  their  nature  and  position  are  very  different : 
granite,  fused  in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  has  been  cooled 
and  consolidated  before  coming  to  the  surface  ;  besides,  it 
generally  consists  of  few  ingredients,  so  that  it  has  nearly 
the  same  character  in  all  countries.  But  as  the  volcanic 
fire  rises  to  the  very  surface  of  the  earth,  fusing  whatever  it 
meets  with,  volcanic  rocks  take  various  forms,  not  only  from 
the  different  kinds  of  strata  which  are  melted,  but  fVom  the 
different  conditions  under  which  the  liquid  matter  has  been 
cooled,  though  most  frequently  on  the  surface — a  circum- 
stance that  seems  to  have  had  the  greatest  effect  on  its  ap- 
pearance and  structure.  Sometimes  it  approaches  so  nearly 
to  granite  that  it  is  diflBcult  to  perceive  a  distinction  :  at 
other  times  it  becomes  glass :  in  short,  all  those  massive, 
unstratified,  and  occasionally  columnar  rocks,  as  basalt, 
greenstone,  porphyry,  and  serpentine,  are  due  to  volcanic 
fires,  and  are  devoid  of  fossil  remains. 

There  seems  scarcely  to  have  been  any  age  of  the  world 
in  which  volcanic  eruptions  have  not  taken  place  in  some 
part  of  the  globe.    Lava  has  pierced  through  every  descrip- 


16  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

tioA  of  rocks,  spread  over  the  surface  of  those  existing  at 
the  time,  filled  their  crevices,  and  flowed  between  their 
strata.  Ever  changing  its  place  of  action,  it  has  burst  out 
at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  as  well  as  on  dry  land.  Enormous 
quantities  of  scorise  and  ashes  have  been  ejected  from  num- 
berless craters,  and  have  formed  extensive  deposits  in  the 
sea,  in  lakes,  and  on  the  land,  in  which  are  imbedded  the 
remains  of  the  animals  and  vegetables  of  the  epoch.  Some 
of  these  deposits  have  become  hard  rock,  others  remain  in 
a  crumbling  state  ;  and  as  they  alternate  with  the  aqueous 
strata  of  almost  every  period,  they  contain  the  fossils  of  all 
the  geological  epochs,  chiefly  fresh  and  salt  water  testacese. 

According  to  a  theory  now  generally  adopted,  which 
originated  with  Mr.  Lyell,  whose  works  are  models  of  philo- 
sophical investigation,  the  metamorphic  rocks,  which  consist 
of  gneiss,  micaschist,  clay-slate,  statuary  marble,  &c.,  were 
formed  of  the  sediment  of  water  in  regular  layers,  differing 
in  kind  and  colour,  but,  having  been  deposited  near  the 
places  where  plutonic  rocks  were  generated,  they  have 
been  changed  by  the  heat  transmitted  from  the  fused  mat- 
ter, and  in  cooling  under  heavy  pressure  and  at  great  depths 
they  have  become  as  highly  crystallized  as  the  granite 
itself,  without  losing  their  stratified  form.  An  earthy 
stratum  has  sometimes  been  changed  into  a  highly  crystal- 
lized rock  to  the  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the 
point  of  contact  by  transmitted  heat,  and  there  are  instances 
of  dark-coloured  limestone  full  of  fossil  shells,  that  has  been 
changed  into  statuary  marble  from  that  cause.  Such  altera- 
tions may  frequently  be  seen  to  a  small  extent  in  rocks  adja- 
cent to  a  stream  of  lava.  There  is  not  a  trace  of  organic 
remains  in  the  metamorphic  rocks;  their  strata  are  some- 
times horizontal,  but  they  are  usually  tilted  at  all  angles  to 
the  horizon,  and  form  some  of  the  highest  mountains  and 
most  extensive  table-lands  on  the  face  of  the  globe.  Al- 
though there  is  the  greatest  similarity  in  the  plutonic  rocks 
in  all  parts  of  the  world,  they  are  by  no  means  identical ; 
they  diflTer  in  colour,  and  even  in  ingredients,  though  these 
are  few. 

Aqueous  rocks  are  all  stratified,  being  the  sedimentary 
deposits  of  water.  They  originate  in  the  wear  of  the  land 
by  rain,  streams,  or  the  ocean.  The  debris  carried  by  run- 
ning water  is  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the  seas  and  lakes, 


GEOLOGY.  17 

where  il  is  consolidated,  and  then  raised  up  by  subterraneous 
forces,  again  to  undergo  the  same  process  after  a  lapse  of 
time.  By  the  washing  away  of  the  land  the  lower  rocks  are 
laid  bare,  and,  as  the  materials  are  deposited  in  different 
places  according  to  their  weight,  the  strata  are  exceedingly 
varied,  but  consist  chiefly  of  arenaceous  or  sandstone  rocks, 
argillaceous  or  clayey  rocks,  and  of  calcareous  rocks  com- 
posed of  sand,  clay,  and  carbonate  of  lime.  They  constitute 
three  great  classes,  w^hich,  in  an  ascending  order,  are  the 
primary  and  secondary  fossiliferous  strata,  and  the  Tertiary 
formations. 

The  primary  fossiliferous  strata,  the  most  ancient  of  all 
the  sedimentary  rocks,  consisting  of  limestone,  sandstones, 
and  shales,  are  entirely  of  marine  origin,  having  been  formed 
far  from  land  at  the  bottom  of  a  very  deep  ocean  ;  conse- 
quently they  contain  the  exuvlse  of  marine  animals  only, 
and  after  the  lapse  of  unnumbered  ages  the  ripple  marks  of 
the  waves  are  still  distinctly  visible  on  some  of  their  strata. 
This  series  of  rocks  is  subdivided  into  the  Cambrian  and 
the  upper  and  lower  Silurian  systems,  on  account  of  differ- 
ences in  their  fossil  remains. 

The  Cambrian  rocks,  sometimes  many  thousand  yards 
thick,  are  for  the  most  part  destitute  of  organic  remains,  but 
the  Silurian  rocks  abound  in  them  more  and  more  as  the 
strata  lie  higher  in  the  series.  In  the  lower  Silurian  group 
are  the  remains  of  shell-fish,  almost  all  of  extinct  genera, 
and  the  few  that  have  any  affinity  to  those  alive  are  of  ex- 
tinct species  ;  Crinoidea,  or  stone-lilies,  which  had  been 
fixed  to  the  rocks  like  tulips  on  their  stems,  are  coeval  with 
the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  deep  ;  and  the  trilobite,  a 
jointed  creature  of  the  crab  kind,  with  prominent  eyes,  are 
almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  Silurian  strata,  but  the 
last  traces  of  them  are  found  in  the  coal-measures  above. 
In  the  upper  Silurian  group  are  abundance  of  marine  shells 
of  almost  every  order,  together  WMth  Crinoidea,  vast  quanti- 
ties of  corals,  and  some  sea-weeds :  several  fossil  sauroid 
fish,  of  extinct  genera,  but  high  organization,  have  been 
found  in  the  highest  beds — the  only  vertebrated  animal  that 
has  yet  been  discovered  among  the  countless  profusion  of 
the  lower  orders  of  creatures  that  are  entombed  in  the  primary 
fossiliferous  strata.  The  remains  of  one  or  more  land-plants, 
in  a  very  imperfect  state,  have  been  found  in  the  Silurian 
2* 


18  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

rocks  of  North  America,  which  shows  that  there  had  been 
land  with  vegetation  at  that  early  period.  The  type  of  these 
plants,  as  well  as  the  size  of  the  shells  and  the  quantity  of 
the  coral,  indicate  that  a  uniformly  warm  temperature  had 
then  prevailed  over  the  globe.  During  the  Silurian  period 
an  ocean  covered  the  northern  hemisphere,  islands  and  lands 
of  moderate  size  had  just  begun  to  rise,  and  earthquakes 
with  volcanic  eruptions  from  insular  and  submarine  vol- 
canos,  were  frequent  towards  its  close. 

The  secondary  fossiliferous  strata,  which  comprise  a  great 
geological  period,  and  constitute  the  principal  part  of  the 
high  land  in  Europe,  were  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  an 
ocean,  like  the  primary,  from  the  debris  of  all  the  others 
carried  down  by  water,  and  still  bear  innumerable  tokens 
of  their  marine  origin,  although  they  have  for  ages  formed 
part  of  the  dry  land.  Calcareous  rocks  are  more  abundant 
in  these  strata  than  in  the  crystalline,  probably  because  the 
carbonic  acid  was  then,  as  it  still  is,  driven  off  from  the 
lower  strata  by  the  internal  heat,  and  came  to  the  surface  as 
gas  or  in  calcareous  springs,  which  either  rose  in  the  sea, 
and  furnished  materials  for  shell-fish  and  coral  insects  to 
build  their  habitations  and  form  coral  reefs,  or  deposited  their 
calcareous  matter  on  the  land  in  the  form  of  rocks. 

The  Devonian  or  old  red  sandstone  group,  in  many  places 
ten  thousand  feet  thick,  consisting  of  strata  of  dark  red  and 
other  sandstones,  marls,  coralline  limestones,  conglomerates, 
&c.,  is  the  lowest  of  the  secondary  fossiliferous  strata,  and 
forms  a  link  between  them  and  the  Silurian  rocks  by  an  ana- 
logy in  their  fossil  remains.  It  has  fossils  peculiarly  its  own, 
but  it  has  also  some  shells  and  corals  common  to  the  strata 
both  above  and  below  it.  There  are  various  families  of  ex- 
tinct sauroid  fish  in  this  group,  some  of  which  were  gigantic, 
others  had  strong  bony  shields  on  their  heads,  and  one  genus, 
covered  with  enamelled  scales,  had  appendages  like  wings. 
The  shark  approaches  nearer  to  some  of  these  ancient  fish 
than  any  other  now  living. 

During  the  long  period  of  perfect  tranquillity  that  prevailed 
after  the  Devonian  group  was  deposited,  a  very  w^arm,  moist, 
and  extremely  equable  climate,  which  extended  all  over  the 
globe,  had  clothed  the  islands  and  lands  in  the  ocean  then 
covering  the  northern  hemisphere  with  exuberant  tropical 
forests  and  jungles.     Subsequent  inroads  of  fresh  water  or  of 


GEOLOGY.  19 

the  sea,  or  rather  partial  sinkings  of  the  land,  had  submerged 
these  forests  and  jungles,  which,  being  mixed  with  layers  of 
sand  and  mud,  had  in  time  been  consolidated  into  one  mass, 
and  were  then  either  left  dry  by  the  retreat  of  the  waters,  or 
gently  raised  above  their  surface. 

These  constitute  the  remarkable  group  of  the  carboniferous 
strata,  which  consists  of  numberless  layers  of  various  sub- 
stances filled  with  a  prodigious  quantity  of  the  remains  of 
fossil  land-plants,  intermixed  with  beds  of  coal,  which  is  en- 
tirely composed  of  vegetable  matter.     In   some  cases  the 
plants  appear  to  have  been  carried  down  by  floods  and  de- 
posited in  estuaries,  but  in  most  instances  the  beauty,  deli- 
cacy, and  sharpness  of  the  impressions  show  that  they  had 
grown  on  the  spot  where  the  coal  was  formed.     More  than 
three  hundred  fossil  plants  have  been  collected  from  the  shale 
where  they  abound,  frequently  with  their  seeds  and  fruit,  so 
that  enough  remains  to  show  the  peculiar  nature  of  this  flora, 
whose  distinguishing  feature  was  the  preponderance  of  ferns  : 
among  these  there  were  tree-ferns  which  must  have  been 
forty  or  fifty  feet  high.     There  were  also  plants  resembling 
the  horse-tail  tribe,  of  gigantic  size  ;  others  like  the  tropical 
club  mosses :  an  aquatic  plant  of  an  extinct  family  was  very 
abundant,  besides  many  others  to  which  we  have  nothing  ana- 
logous.    Forest-trees  of  great  magnitude,  of  the  pine  and  fir 
tribes,  flourished  at  that  period.     The  remains  of  an  extinct 
araucaria,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  pine  family,  have  been 
found  in  the  British  coal-fields  ;  the  existing  species  now 
grow  in  very  warm  countries :  a  few  rare  instances  occur  of 
grasses,  palms,  and  liliaceous  plants.    The  botanical  districts 
were  very  extensive  when  the  coal-plants  were  growing,  for 
the  species  are  nearly  identical  throughout  the  coal-fields  of 
Europe  and  America.     From  the  extent  of  the  ocean,  the 
insular  structure  of  the  land,  the  profusion  of  ferns  and  fir- 
trees,  and  the  warm,  moist,  and  equable  climate,  the  northern 
hemisphere  during  the  formation  of  the  coal  strata  is  thought 
to  have  borne  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  South  Pacific,  with 
its  fern  and   fir  clothed   lands  of  New  Zealand,  Kerguelen 
islands,  and  others. 

The  animal  remains  of  this  period  are  in  the  mountain  lime- 
stone, a  rock  occasionally  nine  hundred  feet  thick,  which,  in 
some  instances,  lies  beneath  the  coal-measures,  and  some- 
times alternates  with  the  shale  and  sandstone.     They  consist 


20  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

of  crinoidea  and  marine  testacese,  among  which  the  size  of 
the  chambered  shells,  as  well  as  that  of  the  corals,  shows  that 
the  ocean  was  very  warm  at  that  time,  even  in  the  high 
northern  latitudes. 

The  coal  strata  have  been  very  much  broken  and  deranged 
in  many  places  by  earthquakes,  which  frequently  occurred 
during  the  secondary  fossiliferous  period,  and  from  time  to 
time  raised  islands  and  land  from  the  deep.  However,  these 
and  all  other  changes  that  have  taken  place  on  the  earth  have 
been  gradual  and  partial,  whether  brought  about  by  fire  or 
water.  The  older  rocks  are  more  shattered  by  earthquakes 
than  the  newer,  because  the  movement  came  from  below; 
but  these  convulsions  have  never  extended  all  over  the  earth 
at  the  same  time — they  have  always  been  local:  for  example, 
the  Silurian  strata  have  been  dislocated  and  tossed  in  Britain 
while  a  vast  area  in  the  south  of  Sweden  and  Russia  still 
retains  a  horizontal  position.  There  is  no  proof  that  any 
mountain-chain  has  ever  been  raised  at  once;  on  the  con- 
trary, the  elevation  has  always  been  produced  by  a  long-con- 
tinued and  reiterated  succession  of  internal  convulsions,  with 
intervals  of  repose.  In  many  instances  the  land  has  risen 
up  or  sunk  down  by  an  imperceptible  equable  motion  con- 
tinued for  ages,  while  in  other  places  the  surface  of  the  earth 
has  remained  stationary  for  long  geological  periods. 

The  magnesian  limestone,  or  permian  formation,  comes 
immediately  above  the  coal-measures,  and  consists  of  brec- 
cias or  conglomerates,  gypsum,  sandstone,  marl,  &c. ;  but 
its  distinguishing  feature  is  a  yellow  limestone  rock,  contain- 
ing carbonate  of  magnesia,  which  often  takes  a  granular  tex- 
ture, and  is  then  known  as  dolomite.  The  permian  forma- 
tion has  a  fossil  flora  and  fauna  peculiar  to  itself,  mingled 
with  those  of  the  coal  strata.  Here  the  remnant  of  an  ear- 
lier creation  gradually  tends  to  its  final  extinction,  and  a  new 
one  begins  to  appear.  The  flora  is,  in  many  instances,  spe- 
cifically the  same  with  that  in  the  coal  strata  below.  Cer- 
tain fish  are  also  common  to  the  two,  which  never  appear 
again.  They  belong  to  a  race  universal  in  the  early  geolo- 
gical periods,  and  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  saurian  rep- 
tiles. A  small  number  of  existing  genera  only,  such  as  the 
shark  and  sturgeon,  make  some  approach  to  the  structure  of 
these  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  waters.  The  new  creation 
is  marked  by  the  introduction  of  two  species  of  saurian  rep- 


GEOLOGY.  21 

tiles:  the  fossil  remains  of  one  have  been  found  in  the  mag- 
nesian  limestone  in  England,  and  those  of  the  other  in  a  cor- 
responding formation  in  Germany.  They  are  the  earliest 
members  of  a  family  which  was  to  have  dominion  in  the  land 
and  water  for  ages. 

A  series  of  red  marls,  rock-salt,  and  sandstones,  w^hich 
have  arisen  from  the  disintegration  of  metaniorphic  slates  and 
porphyritic  trap  containing  oxide  of  iron,  and  known  as  the 
trias  or  new  red  sandstone  system,  lies  above  the  magnesian 
limestone.  In  England  this  formation  is  particularly  rich  in 
rock-salt,  which,  with  layers  of  gypsum  and  marl,  is  some- 
times six  hundred  feet  thick ;  but  in  this  country  the  muschel- 
kalk  is  w^anting,  which  in  Germany  is  so  remarkable  for  the 
quantity  of  organic  remains.  At  this  time  creatures  like 
frogs  of  enormous  dimensions  had  been  frequent,  as  they  have 
left  their  footsteps  on  what  must  then  have  been  a  soft  shore. 
Forty-seven  genera  of  fossil  remains  have  been  found  in  the 
trias  in  Germany,  consisting  of  shells,  cartilaginous  fish,  en- 
crinites,  &c.,  all  distinct  in  species,  and  many  distinct  in 
genera,  from  the  organic  fossils  of  the  magnesian  limestone 
below,  and  also  from  those  entombed  in  the  strata  above. 

During  a  long  period  of  tranquillity  the  oolite  or  Jurassic 
group  was  next  deposited  in  a  sea  of  variable  depth,  and 
consisted  of  sands,  sandstones,  marls,  clays,  and  limestone. 
At  this  time  there  was  a  complete  change  in  the  aqueous  de- 
posits all  over  Europe.  The  red  iron-stained  arenaceous  rock, 
the  black  coal,  and  dark  strata  were  succeeded  by  light  blue 
clays,  pale  yellow  limestones,  and,  lastly,  white  chalk.  The 
water  that  deposited  the  strata  must  have  been  highly  charged 
with  carbonate  of  lime,  since  few  of  the  formations  of  that  pe- 
riod are  without  calcareous  matter,  and  calcareous  rocks  were 
formed  to  a  prodigious  extent  throughout  Europe;  the  Pyre- 
nees, Alps,  Apennines,  and  Balkan  abound  in  them,  and  the 
Jura  mountains,  which  have  given  their  name  to  the  series, 
are  formed  of  them.  The  European  ocean  then  teemed  with 
animal  life  ;  whole  beds  consist  almost  entirely  of  marine 
shells  and  corals.  Belemnites  and  ammonites,  from  an  inch 
in  diameter  to  the  size  of  a  cart-w^heel,  are  entombed  by  my- 
riads in  the  strata ;  whole  forests  of  that  beautiful  zoophite, 
the  stone-lily,  flourished  on  the  surface  of  the  oolite,  then 
under  the  waters  ;  and  the  encrinite,  one  of  the  same  genus, 
is  embedded  in  millions  in  the  enchoreal  shell  marble,  which 


22  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

occupies  such  extensive  tracts  in  Europe.  Fossil  fish  are 
numerous  in  these  strata,  but  different  from  those  of  the  coal 
series,  the  permian  formation,  and  trias.  Not  one  genus  of 
the  fish  of  this  period  are  now  in  existence.  The  newly- 
raised  islands  and  lands  were  clothed  with  vegetation  like 
that  of  the  large  islands  of  the  intertropical  Archipelagos  of 
the  present  day,  which,  though  less  rich  than  during  the  car- 
boniferous period,  still  indicates  a  very  moist  and  warm  cli- 
mate. Ferns  were  less  abundant,  and  they  were  associated 
with  various  genera  and  species  of  the  cycadeae,  which  had 
grown  on  the  southern  coast  of  England,  and  in  other  parts 
of  northern  Europe,  congeners  of  the  present  cycas  and  zamia 
of  the  tropics.  These  plants  had  been  very  numerous,  and 
the  pandanse,  or  screw-pine,  the  first  tenant  of  the  new  lands 
in  ancient  and  modern  times,  is  a  family  found  in  a  fossil 
state  in  the  inferior  oolite  of  England,  which  was  but  just 
rising  from  the  deep  at  that  time.  The  species  now  flourish- 
ing grows  only  on  the  coasts  of  such  coral  islands  in  the  Pa- 
cific as  have  recently  emerged  from  the  waves.  In  the  upper 
strata  of  this  group,  however,  the  confervse  and  monocotyle- 
donous  plants  become  more  rare — an  indication  of  a  change 
of  climate.  * 

The  new  lands  that  were  scattered  in  the  ocean  of  the 
oolitic  period  were  drained  by  rivers,  and  inhabited  by  huge 
crocodiles  and  saurian  reptiles  of  gigantic  size,  mostly  of  ex- 
tinct genera.  The  crocodiles  came  nearest  to  modern  rep- 
tiles, but  the  others,  though  bearing  a  remote  similitude  in 
general  structure  to  living  forms,  were  quite  anomalous,  com- 
bining in  one  the  structure  of  various  distinct  creatures,  and 
so  monstrous  that  they  must  have  been  more  like  the  visions 
of  a  troubled  dream  than  things  of  real  existence;  yet  in  or- 
ganization a  few  of  them  came  nearer  to  the  type  of  living 
mammalia  than  any  existing  reptiles  do.  Some  of  these  sau- 
rians  had  lived  in  the  water,  others  were  amphibious,  and 
the  various  species  of  one  genus  even  had  wings  like  a  bat, 
and  fed  on  insects.  There  were  both  herbivorous  and  pre- 
daceous  saurians,  and  from  their  size  and  strength  they  must 
have  been  formidable  enemies.  Besides,  the  numbers  de- 
posited are  so  great  that  they  must  have  swarmed  for  ages 
in  the  estuaries  and  shallow  seas  of  the  period,  especially  in 
the  lias,  a  marine  stratum  of  clay  the  lowest  of  the  oolite 
series.     They  gradually  declined  towards  the  end  of  the  se- 


GEOLOGY.  23 

condary  fosslHferous  epoch,  but  as  a  class  they  lived  in  all 
subsequent  eras,  and  still  exist  in  tropical  countries,  although 
the  species  are  very  different  from  their  ancient  congeners. 
Tortoises  of  various  kinds  were  contemporary  with  the  sau- 
rians,  also  a  family  that  still  exists.  In  the  stonefield  slate, 
a  stratum  of  the  lower  oolitic  group,  there  are  the  remains  of 
insects  ;  and  the  bones  of  two  small  quadrupeds  have  been 
found  there  belonging  to  the  marsupial  tribe,  such  as  the  opos- 
sum ;  a  very  remarkable  circumstance,  because  that  family 
of  animals  at  the  present  time  is  confined  to  New  Holland, 
South  America,  and  as  far  north  as  Pennsylvania  at  least. 
The  great  changes  in  animal  life  during  this  period  were  in- 
dications of  the  successive  alterations  that  had  taken  place 
on  the  earth's  surface. 

The  cretaceous  strata  follow  the  oolite  in  ascending  order, 
consisting  of  clay,  green  and  iron  sands,  blue  limestone,  and 
chalk,  probably  formed  of  the  decay  of  coral  and  shells, 
which  predominates  so  much  in  England  and  other  parts  of 
Europe,  that  it  has  given  the  name  and  its  peculiar  feature 
to  the  whole  group.  It  is,  however,  by  no  means  universal ; 
the  chalk  is  wanting  in  many  parts  of  the  world  where  the 
other  strata  of  this  series  prevail,  and  then  their  connection 
with  the  group  can  only  be  ascertained  by  the  identity  of 
their  fossil  remains.  With  the  exception  of  some  beds  of 
coal  among  the  oolitic  series,  the  Wealden  clay,  the  lowest 
of  the  cretaceous  group  in  England,  is  a  fresh-water  forma- 
tion, and  the  tropical  character  of  its  flora  shows  that  the  cli- 
mate w^as  still  very  warm.  Plants  allied  to  the  zamias  and 
cycades  of  our  tropical  regions,  many  ferns  and  pines  of  the 
genus  araucaria,  characterized  its  vegetation,  and  the  upright 
stems  of  a  fossil  forest  at  Portland  show  that  it  had  been  co- 
vered with  trees.  It  was  inhabited  by  tortoises  approaching 
to  families  now  living  in  warm  countries,  and  saurian  rep- 
tiles of  five  different  genera  swarmed  in  the  lakes  and  estua- 
ries. This  clay  contains  fresh-w^ater  shells,  fish  of  the  carp 
kind,  and  the  bones  of  w.ading  birds.  The  Wealden  clay  is 
one  of  the  various  instances  of  the  subsidence  of  land  of  which 
there  were  others  during  this  period. 

The  cretaceous  strata  above  our  Wealden  clay  are  full 
of  marine  exuviae.  There  are  vast  tracts  of  sand  in  north- 
ern Europe,  and  many  very  extensive  tracts  of  chalk,  but  in 
the  southern   part  of  the  continent  the   cretaceous   rocks 


24  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

assume  a  different  character.  There  and  elsewhere  exten- 
sive limestone  rocks,  filled  with  very  peculiar  shells,  show 
that  when  the  cretaceous  strata  were  forming,  an  ocean 
extended  from  the  Atlantic  into  Asia,  which  covered  the 
south  of  France,  all  southern  Europe,  part  of  Syria,  the  isles 
of  the  i^gean  Sea,  and  the  coasts  of  Thrace  and  the  Troad. 
The  remains  of  turtles  have  been  found  in  the  cretaceous 
group,  quantities  of  coral,  and  abundance  of  shells  of  ex- 
tinct species  :  some  of  the  older  kinds  still  existed,  new 
ones  were  introduced,  and  some  of  the  most  minute  species 
of  microscopic  shells,  which  constitute  a  large  portion  of  the 
chalk,  are  supposed  to  be  the  same  with  creatures  now 
alive,  the  first  instance  of  identity  of  species  in  the  ancient 
and  modern  creation.  An  approximation  to  recent  times  is 
to  observed  also  in  the  arrangement  of  organised  nature, 
since  at  this  early  period,  and  indeed  even  in  the  silurian 
and  oolitic  epochs,  the  marine  fauna  was  divided,  as  now, 
into  distinct  geographical  provinces.  The  great  saurians 
were  on  the  decline,  and  many  of  them  were  found  no  more, 
but  a  gigantic  creature  intermediate  between  the  living 
monitor  and  iguana,  lived  at  this  period. 

An  immense  geological  cycle  elapsed  between  the  termi- 
nation of  the  secondary  fossiliferous  strata  and  the  beginning 
of  the  tertiary.  With  the  latter  a  new  order  of  things  com- 
menced approaching  more  closely  to  the  actual  state  of  the 
globe.  During  the  tertiary  formation  the  same  causes  under 
new  circumstances  produced  an  infinite  variety  in  the  order 
and  kind  of  the  strata,  accompanied  by  a  corresponding 
change  in  animal  and  vegetable  life.  The  old  creation, 
which  had  nothing  in  common  with  the  existing  order  of 
things,  had  passed  away  and  given  place  to  one  more  nearly 
approaching  to  that  which  now  prevails.  Among  the  my- 
riads of  beings  that  inhabited  the  earth  and  the  ocean  during 
the  secondary  fossiliferous  epoch  scarcely  one  species  is  to 
be  found  in  the  tertiary.  Two  planets  could  hardly  difTer 
more  in  their  natural  productions.  This  break  in  the  law 
of  continuity  is  the  more  remarkable,  as  hitherto  some  of  the 
newly  created  animals  were  always  introduced  before  the 
older  were  extinguished.  The  circumstances  and  climate 
suited  to  the  one  became  more  and  more  unfit  for  the  other, 
which  consequently  perished  gradually  while  their  successors 
increased.  It  is  possible  that  as  observations  become  more 
extended  this  hiatus  may  be  filled  up. 


GEOLOGY.  25 

The  series  of  rocks  from  the  granite  to  the  end  of  the 
secondary  fossiliferous  strata,  taken  as  a  whole,  constitute 
the  solid  crust  of  the  globe,  and  in  that  sense  are  universally 
diffused  over  the  earth's  surface.  The  tertiary  strata  occupy 
the  hollows  formed  in  this  crust,  whether  by  subterraneous 
movements,  by  lakes,  or  denudation  by  w'ater,  as  in  the 
estuaries  of  rivers,  and  consequently  occur  in  irregular 
tracts,  often,  however,  of  prodigious  thickness  and  extent. 
Indeed  they  seem  to  have  been  as  widely  developed  as  any 
other  formation,  though  time  has  been  wanting  to  bring 
them  into  view. 

The  innumerable  basins  and  hollows  with  which  the  con- 
tinents and  larger  islands  had  been  indented  for  ages  after 
the  termination  of  the  secondary  fossiliferous  series,  had 
sometimes  been  fresh-water  lakes,  and  at  other  times  were 
inundated  by  the  sea  ;  consequently  the  deposits  which  took 
place  during  these  changes  alternately  contain  the  spoils  of 
terrestrial  and  marine  animals.  The  frequent  intrusion  of 
volcanic  strata  among  the  tertiary  formations  shows  that,  in 
Europe,  the  earth  had  been  in  a  very  disturbed  state,  and 
that  these  repeated  vicissitudes  had  been  occasioned  by 
elevations  and  depressions  of  the  soil,  as  well  as  by  the 
action  of  water. 

There  are  three  distinct  groups  in  these  strata  :  the  lowest 
tertiary  or  Eiocene  group,  so  called  by  Mr.  Lyell,  because, 
among  the  myriads  of  fossil  shell-fish  it  contains,  very  few 
are  identical  with  those  now  living  ;  the  Meiocene,  or  mid- 
dle group,  has  a  greater  number  of  the  exuvise  of  existing 
species  of  shells  ;  and  the  Pleiocene,  or  upper  tertiary  group, 
still  more.  Though  frequently  heaved  up  to  great  eleva- 
tions on  the  flanks  of  the  mountain-chains,  as,  for  example, 
on  the  Alps  and  Apennines,  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
tertiary  strata  maintain  their  original  horizontal  position  in 
the  very  places  where  they  were  formed.  Immense  insu- 
lated deposits  of  this  kind  are  to  be  met  with  all  over  the 
world  ;  Europe  abounds  with  them,  London  and  Paris 
stand  on  such  basins,  and  they  cover  immense  tracts  both 
in  North  and  South  America. 

The  monstrous  reptiles  had  mostly  disappeared,  and  the 
mammalia    now    took    possession    of    the    earth,    of  forms 
scarcely  less    anomalous   than    their    predecessors,    though 
approaching  more  nearly  to  those  alive. 
3 


26  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Numerous  species  of  extinct  animals  that  lived  (luring  the 
earliest  or  Eiocene  period  have  been  found  in  various  parts 
of  the  world,  especially  in  the  Paris  basin,  of  the  order  of 
Pachydermala,  to  the  greater  number  of  which  we  have 
nothing  analogous  ;  they  were  mostly  amphibious  and  herbi- 
vorous quadrupeds,  which  had  frequented  the  borders  of  the 
rivers  and  lakes  that  covered  the  greater  part  of  Europe  at 
that  time.  This  is  the  more  extraordinary,  as  existing  ani- 
mals of  that  order,  namely,  a  daman  and  three  tapirs,  are 
confined  to  the  torrid  zone.  These  creatures  were  widely 
ditlused,  and  some  of  them  were  associated  wnth  genera 
still  existing,  though  of  totally  different  species  ;  such  as 
animals  allied  to  the  raccoon  and  dormouse,  the  ox,  bear, 
deer,  the  fox,  the  dog,  and  others.  Although  these  quad- 
rupeds differ  so  widely  from  those  of  the  present  day,  the 
same  proportion  existed  then  as  now  between  the  carnivo- 
rous and  herbaceous  genera.  The  spoils  of  marine  mam- 
malia of  this  period  have  also  been  found,  sometimes  at 
great  elevations  above  the  sea,  all  of  extinct  species,  and 
some  of  these  cetacea  were  of  huge  size.  This  marvellous 
change  of  the  creative  power  was  not  confined  to  the  earth 
and  the  ocean  ;  the  air  also  was  now  occupied  by  many 
extinct  races  of  birds  allied  to  the  owl,  buzzard,  quail,  cur- 
lew, &c.  The  climate  must  still  have  been  warmer  than  at 
present  from  the  remains  of  land  and  sea  plants  found  in 
high  latitudes.  Even  in  England  bones  of  the  opossum, 
monkey,  and  boa  have  been  discovered,  all  animals  of  warm 
countries,  besides  fossil  sword  and  saw  fish,  both  of  genera 
foreign  to  the  British  seas. 

During  the  Meiocene  period  new  amphibious  quadrupeds 
were  associated  with  the  old,  of  w^hich  the  deinotherium  is 
the  most  characteristic,  and  much  the  largest  of  the  mam- 
malia yet  found,  far  surpassing  the  largest  elephant  in  size, 
of  a  singular  form,  and  unknown  nature. 

The  palseotherium  was  also  of  this  period,  and  also  the 
mastodon,  both  of  large  dimensions.  Various  families,  and 
even  genera,  of  quadrupeds  now  existing  were  associated 
with  these  extraordinary  creatures,  though  of  extinct  species, 
such  as  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  tapir,  horse, 
bear,  wolf,  hyaena,  weasel,  beaver,  ox,  buffalo,  deer,  &c. ; 
and  also  marine  mammalia,  as  dolphins,  sea-calves,  wal- 
ruses, and  lamantines.     Indeed,  in  the  constant  increase  of 


GEOLOGY.  27 

animal  life  manifested  throughout  the  whole  of  the  tertiary 
strata,  the  forms  approach  nearer  to  living  species  as  their 
remains  lie  high  in  the  series. 

In  the  older  Pleiocene  period  some  of  the  large  amphi- 
bious quadrupeds,  and  other  genera  of  mammalia  of  the 
earlier  tertiary  periods,  appear  no  more  ;  but  there  were  the 
mastodon,  and  the  elephas  primogenius,  or  mammoth,  some 
species  of  which,  of  prodigious  size,  were  associated  with 
numerous  quadrupeds  of  existing  genera,  but  lost  species. 
Extinct  species  of  almost  all  the  quadrupeds  now  alive  seem 
to  have  inhabited  the  earth  at  that  time  ;  their  bones  have 
been  discovered  in  caverns ;  they  were  imbedded  in  the 
breccias  and  in  most  of  the  strata  of  that  epoch — as  the  hip- 
popotamus, rhinoceros,  elephant,  horse,  bear,  wolf,  water- 
rat,  hysena,  and  various  birds.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  the 
caverns  of  Australia  the  fossil  bones  all  belong  to  extinct 
species  of  gigantic  kangaroos  and  wombats,  animals  belong- 
ing to  the  marsupial  family,  which  are  so  peculiarly  the 
inhabitants  of  that  country  at  the  present  day,  but  of  dimi- 
nished size.  The  newer  Pleiocene  strata  show  that  the 
same  analogy  existed  between  the  extinct  and  recent  mam- 
malia of  South  America,  which,  like  their  living  congeners, 
as  far  as  we  know,  belong  to  that  continent  alone  ;  for  the 
fossil  remains,  quite  different  from  those  in  the  old  world, 
are  of  animals  of  the  same  genera  with  the  sloths,  anteaters, 
and  arraadilloes,  which  now  inhabit  that  country,  but  of 
vastly  superior  size  and  different  species.  The  megathe- 
rium and  equus  curvidens,  or  extinct  horse,  had  so  vast  a 
range  in  America,  that,  while  Mr.  Lyell  collected  their  bones 
in  Georgia,  in  30°  N.  latitude,  Mr.  Darwin  brought  them 
from  the  corresponding  latitude  in  South  America.  The 
equus  curvidens  differed  as  much  from  the  living  horse  as 
the  quagga  or  zebra  does,  and  the  European  fossil  horse  is 
also  a  distinct  and  lost  animal. 

The  greater  part  of  the  land  in  the  northern  hemisphere 
w^as  elevated  above  the  deep  during  the  tertiary  period,  and 
such  lands  as  already  existed  acquired  additional  height  ; 
consequently  the  climate,  which  had  previously  been  tropi- 
cal, became  gradually  colder,  for  an  increase  of  land,  which 
raises  the  temperature  between  the  tropics,  has  exactly  the 
contrary  effect  in  higher  latitudes.  Hence  excessive  cold 
prevailed  during  the  latter  part  of  the  Pleiocene  period,  and 


28  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

a  great  part  of  the  European  continent  was  covered  by  an 
ocean  full  of  floating  ice,  not  unlike  that  experienced  at  this 
day  off  the  north-eastern  coast  of  America. 

touring  the  latter  of  the  Pleiocene   period,  however,  the 
bed  of  that  glacial  ocean  rose  partially,  and  after  many  vicis- 
situdes the  European  continent  assumed  nearly  the  form  and 
climate  it  now  has.     There   is  every  reason   to  believe  that 
the  glacial  sea  extended  also  over  great  portions  of  the  arctic 
lands  of  Asia  and  America.     Old  forms  of  animal  and  vege- 
table life  were  destroyed  by  these  alterations  in  the  surface 
of  the  earth  and  the  consequent  change  of  temperature  ;  and 
when  in  the  progress  of  the  Pleiocene  period  the  mountain- 
tops  appeared  as  islands  above  the  water,  they  were  clothed 
with  the  flora  and  peopled  by  the  animals  they  still  retain  ; 
and  new  forms  were  added   as  the  land  rose  and  became 
dry  and  fitted  to  receive  and  maintain  the  races  of  beings 
now  alive,  all  of  which  had  possession  of  the  earth  for  ages 
prior  to  the  historical  or  human  period.     Some  of  the  ex- 
tinct animals  had  long  resisted  the  great  vicissitudes  of  the 
times  ;  of  these  the  mammoth,  or  elephas  primogenius,  whose 
fossil  remains  are  found  all  over  Europe,  Asia,  and  America, 
but  especially  in  the  gelid  soil  of  Siberia,  alone  outlived  its 
associates,  the  last  remnant  of  a  former  world.     In  two  or 
three  instances  this  animal  has  been  discovered  entire,  en- 
tombed in  frozen  mud,  with  its  hair  and  its  flesh  so  fresh 
that  wolves  and  dogs  fed   upon  it.     It  has  been  supposed 
that,  as  the  Siberian  rivers  flow  for  hundreds  of  miles  from 
the  southern  part  of  the  country  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  these 
elephants  might  have  been  drowned  by  floods  while  brows- 
ing in  the  milder  regions,  and  that  their  bodies  were  car- 
ried down  by  the  rivers  and  imbedded  in  mud,  and  frozen 
before  they  had  time  to  decay.     Although  the  congeners  of 
this  animal  are  now  the  inhabitants  of  the  torrid  zone,  they 
may  have  been  able  to  endure  the  cold  of  a  Siberian  winter. 
Baron  Cuvier  found  that  this  animal  differed  as  much  from 
the  living  elephant  as  a  horse  does  from  an  ass.     The  sup- 
ply of  food   in   summer  was  probably  sufficient,  since   the 
quantity  requisite  for  the  maintenance  of  the  larger  animals 
is  by  no  means  in  proportion  to  their  bulk,  and  it  may  have 
migrated  to  a  more  genial  climate  in  the  cold  months. 

Shell-fish  seem  to  have  been  more  able  to  endure  all  the 
great  geological  changes  than  any  of  their  organic   asso- 


GEOLOGY.  29 

ciates ;  they  show  a  constant  approximation  to  modern 
species  during  the  progress  of  the  tertiary  periods.  The 
whole  of  these  strata  contain  enormous  quantities  of  shells 
of  extinct  species  ;  in  the  oldest,  three  and  a  half  per  cent, 
of  the  shells  are  identical  with  some  now  existing,  while  on 
the  uppermost  strata  of  this  geological  period  there  are  not 
less  than  from  ninety  to  ninety-five  in  a  hundred  identical 
with  those  now  alive. 

Of  all  the  fossil  fishes  from  the  silurian  strata  to  the  end 
of  the  tertiary,  not  one  is  specifically  the  same  with  living 
forms,  except  the  Mallotus  villosus,  or  captan,  of  the  salmon 
family,  and  perhaps  a  few  others  of  the  most  recent  of  these 
periods.  In  the  Eiocene  strata  one-third  belong  to  extinct 
genera. 

Under  the  vegetable  mould  in  every  country  there  is  a 
stratum  of  loose  sand,  gravel,  and  mud  lying  upon  the  sub- 
jacent rocks,  often  of  great  thickness,  called  alluvium,  which 
in  the  high  latitudes  of  North  America  and  Europe  is  mixed 
with  enormous  fragments  of  rock,  sometimes  angular  and 
sometimes  rounded  and  waterworn,  which  have  been  trans- 
ported hundreds  of  miles  from  their  origin.  It  is  there 
known  as  the  Boulder  formation,  or  Northern  Drift,  because, 
from  the  identity  of  the  boulders  with  the  rocks  of  the  nor- 
thern mountains,  they  evidently  have  come  from  them,  and 
their  size  becomes  less  as  the  distance  increases.  In  Russia 
there  are  blocks  of  great  magnitude  that  have  been  carried 
eight  hundred  and  even  a  thousand  miles  south-east  from 
their  origin  in  the  Scandinavian  range.  There  is  every^ 
reason  to  believe  that  such  masses,  enormous  as  they  are, 
have  been  transported  by  icebergs  and  deposited  when  the 
northern  parts  of  the  continents  were  covered  by  the  glacial 
sea.  The  same  process  is  now  in  progress  in  the  high 
southern  latitudes. 

The  last  manifestation  of  creative  power,  with  few  excep- 
tions, differs  specifically  from  all  that  went  before  ;  the 
recent  strata  contain  only  the  exuviae  of  animals  now  living, 
often  mixed  with  the  bones  and  the  works  of  man. 

The  thickness  of  the  fossiliferous  strata  up  to  the  end  of 
the  tertiary  formation  has  been  estimated  at  about  seven  or 
eight  miles  ;  so  that  the  time  requisite  for  their  deposition 
must  have  been  immense.  Every  river  carries  down  mud, 
sand,  or  gravel  to  the  sea ;  the  Ganges  brings  more  than 
3* 


30  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

700,000  cubic  feet  of  mud  every  hour,  the  Yellow  River  in 
China  2,000,000,  and  the  Mississippi  still  more  ;  yet,  not- 
withstanding these  great  deposits,  the  Italian  hydrographer, 
Manfredi,  has  estimated  that,  if  the  sediment  of  all  the  rivers 
on  the  globe  were  spread  equally  over  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean,  it  would  require  1000  years  to  raise  its  bed  one  foot ; 
so  at  that  rate  it  would  require  3,960,000  years  to  raise  the 
bed  of  the  ocean  alone  to  a  height  nearly  equal  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  fossiliferous  strata,  or  seven  miles  and  a  half,  not 
taking  account  of  the  waste  of  the  coasts  by  the  sea  itself; 
but  if  the  whole  globe  be  considered  instead  of  the  bottom 
of  the  sea  only,  the  time  would  be  nearly  four  times  as 
great,  even  supposing  as  much  alluvium  to  be  deposited 
uniformly  both  with  regard  to  time  and  place,  which  it 
never  is.  Besides,  in  various  places,  the  strata  have  been 
more  than  once  carried  to  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  and 
again  raised  above  its  surface  by  subterranean  fires  after 
many  ages,  so  that  the  whole  period  from  the  beginning  of 
these  primary  fossiliferous  strata  to  the  present  day  must  be 
be  great  beyond  calculation,  and  only  bears  comparison  with 
the  astronomical  cycles,  as  might  naturally  be  expected,  the 
earth  being  without  doubt  of  the  same  antiquity  with  the 
other  bodies  of  the  solar  system.  What  then  shall  we  say 
if  the  time  be  included  which  the  granitic,  metamorphic, 
and  recent  series  occupied  in  forming  ?  These  great  periods 
of  time  correspond  wonderfully  with  the  gradual  increase  of 
animal  life  and  the  successive  creation  and  extinction  of 
numberless  orders  of  being,  and  with  the  incredible  quantity 
of  organic  remains  buried  in  the  crust  of  the  earth  in  every 
country  on  the  face  of  the  globe. 

Every  great  geological  change  in  the  nature  of  the  strata 
was  accompanied  by  the  introduction  of  a  new  race  of  beings, 
and  the  gradual  extinction  of  those  that  had  previously 
existed,  their  structure  and  habits  being  no  longer  fitted  for 
the  new  circumstances  in  which  these  changes  had  placed 
them.  The  change,  however,  never  was  abrupt,  except  at 
the  beginning  of  the  tertiary  strata  ;  and  it  may  be  observed 
that,  although  the  mammalia  came  last,  there  is  no  proof  of 
progressive  development,  for  animals  and  plants  of  high 
organization  appeared  among  the  earliest  of  their  kind. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  animated  beings  was 
much  more  extensive  in  the  ancient  seas  and  lands  than  in 


GEOLOGY.  31 

later  times.  In  very  remote  ages  the  same  animal  inhabited 
the  most  distant  parts  of  the  sea  ;  the  corallines  built  from 
the  Equator  to  within  ten  or  fifteen  degrees  of  the  Pole  ;  and, 
previous  to  the  formation  of  the  carboniferous  strata,  there 
appears  to  have  been  even  a  greater  uniformity  in  the  vege- 
table than  in  the  animal  world,  though  New  Holland  had 
formed  even  then  a  peculiar  district,  supposing  the  coal  in 
that  country  to  be  of  the  same  epoch  as  in  Europe  and 
America  ;  but  as  the  strata  became  more  varied,  species 
were  less  widely  diffused.  Some  of  the  saurians  were  in- 
habitants of  both  the  Old  and  New  World,  while  others  lived 
in  the  latter  only.  In  the  tertiary  periods  the  animals  of 
Australia  and  America  differed  nearly  as  much  from  those 
of  Europe  as  they  do  at  the  present  day.  The  world  was 
then,  as  now,  divided  into  great  physical  regions,  each 
inhabited  by  a  peculiar  race  of  animals  ;  and  even  the  dif- 
ferent species  of  shell-fish  of  the  same  sea  were  confined  to 
certain  shores.  Of  405  species  of  shell-fish  which  inhabited 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  during  the  early  and  middle  part  of  the 
tertiary  period,  only  twelve  were  common  to  the  American 
and  European  coasts.  In  fact,  the  divisions  of  the  animal 
and  vegetable  creation  into  geographical  districts  had  been 
in  the  latter  periods  contemporaneous  with  the  rise  of  the 
land,  each  portion  of  which  as  it  rose  above  the  deep  had 
been  clothed  with  a  vegetation  and  peopled  with  creatures 
suited  to  its  position  with  regard  to  the  equator,  and  to  the 
existing  circumstances  of  the  globe  ;  and  the  marine  crea- 
tures had  no  doubt  been  divided  into  districts  at  the  same 
periods,  because  the  bed  of  the  ocean  had  been  subject  to 
similar  changes. 

The  quantity  of  fossil  remains  is  so  great  that  probably  not 
a  particle  of  matter  exists  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  that  has 
not  at  some  time  formed  part  of  a  living  creature.  Since  the 
commencement  of  animated  existence,  zoophytes  have  built 
coral  reefs  extending  hundreds  of  miles,  and  mountains  of 
limestone  are  full  of  their  remains  all  over  the  globe.  Mines 
of  shells  are  worked  to  make  lime  ;  ranges  of  hills  and  rock, 
many  hundred  feet  thick,  are  almost  entirely  composed  of 
them,  and  they  abound  in  every  mountain-chain  throughout 
the  earth.  The  prodigious  quantity  of  microscopic  shells 
discovered  by  M.  Ehrenberg  is  still  more  astonishing ; 
shells  not  larger  than  a  grain  of  sand  form  entire  mountains  : 


32  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

a  great  portion  of  the  hills  of  Casciano  in  Tuscany  consist 
of  chambered  shells  so  minute  that  Signor  Saldani  collected 
10,454  of  them  from  one  ounce  of  stone.  Chalk  is  often 
almost  entirely  composed  of  them.  Tripoli,  a  fine  powder 
long  in  use  for  polishing  metals,  is  almost  entirely  composed 
of  shells;  the  polishing  property  is  owing  to  their  siliceous 
coats  ;  and  there  are  even  hills  of  great  extent  consisting  of 
this  substance,  the  debris  of  an  infinite  variety  of  micro- 
scopic insects. 

The  facility  with  which  many  slates  and  clays  are  split  is 
owing,  in  some  instances,  to  layers  of  minute  shells.  Fossil 
fish  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  in  all  the  fossili- 
ferous  strata,  with  the  exception  of  some  of  the  lowest,  but 
each  great  geological  period  had  species  of  fish  peculiar  to 
itself. 

The  remains  of  the  great  saurians  are  innumerable  ;  those 
of  extinct  quadrupeds  are  very  numerous;  but  there  is  no 
circumstance  in  the  whole  science  of  fossil  geology  more 
remarkable  than  the  inexhaustible  multitudes  of  fossil  ele- 
phants that  are  found  in  Siberia.  Their  tusks  have  been  an 
object  of  traffic  in  ivory  for  centuries,  and  in  some  places 
they  have  been  in  such  prodigious  quantities,  that  the  ground 
is  tainted  with  the  smell  of  animal  matter.  Their  huge 
skeletons  are  found  from  the  borders  of  Europe  through  all 
northern  Asia  to  its  extremest  point,  and  from  the  foot  of  the 
Altai  mountains  to  the  shores  of  the  Frozen  Ocean,  a  surface 
equal  in  extent  to  the  whole  of  Europe.  Some  islands  in 
the  Arctic  Sea  are  composed  almost  entirely  of  their  remains, 
mixed  with  the  bones  of  various  other  animals  of  living 
genera,  but  extinct  species. 

Equally  wonderful  is  the  quantity  of  fossil  plants  that  still 
remain,  if  it  be  considered  that  from  the  frail  nature  of  many 
vegetable  substances  multitudes  must  have  perished  without 
leaving  a  trace  behind.  The  vegetation  that  covered  the 
terrestrial  part  of  the  globe  previous  to  the  formation  of  the 
carboniferous  strata  had  far  surpassed  in  exuberance  the 
rankest  tropical  jungles.  There  are  many  coal-measures  of 
great  extent  in  various  parts  of  the  earth,  especially  in  North 
America,  where  that  of  Pittsburg  occupies  an  area  of  about 
fourteen  thousand  square  miles  ;  and  that  in  the  Illinois  is 
not  much  inferior  to  the  area  of  all  England. 

As  coal  is  entirely  a  vegetable  substance,  some  idea  may 


FORM  OF  THE  GREAT  CONTINENT.  33 

be  formed  of  the  richness  of  the  ancient  flora  ;  in  latter  times 
it  was  less  exuberant,  and  never  has  again  been  so  luxu- 
riant, probably  on  account  of  the  decrease  of  tempera- 
ture during  the  deposition  of  the  tertiary  strata,  and  in  the 
glacial  period  which  immediately  preceded  the  creation  of 
the  present  tribes  of  plants  and  animals.  Even  after  their 
introduction  the  temperature  must  have  been  very  low,  but 
hy  subsequent  changes  in  the  distribution  of  the  sea  and 
land  the  cold  was  gradually  mitigated,  till  at  last  the  climate 
of  the  northern  hemisphere  became  what  it  is  now. 

Such  is  the  marvellous  history  laid  open  to  us  on  the 
earth's  surface.  Surely  it  is  not  the  heavens  only  that 
declare  the  glory  of  God, — the  earth  also  proclaims  His 
"Handiwork ! 


CHAPTER   n. 


FORM  OF  THE  GREAT  CONTINENT THE  HIGH  LANDS  OF  THE 

GREAT  CONTINENT  : THE  ATLAS,  SPANISH,  FRENCH  AND 

GERMAN  MOUNTAINS THE  ALPS,  BALKAN,  AND  APENNINES. 

At  the  end  of  the  tertiary  period  the  earth  was  much  in  the 
same  state  that  it  is  at  present  with  regard  to  the  distribution 
of  land  and  water.  The  preponderance  of  land  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  indicates  a  prodigious  accumulation  of 
internal  energy  under  these  latitudes  at  a  very  remote  geolo- 
gical period.  The  forces  that  raised  the  two  great  conti- 
nents above  the  deep,  when  viewed  on  a  wide  scale,  must 
evidently  have  acted  at  right  angles  to  one  another,  nearly 
parallel  to  the  equator  in  the  old  continent,  and  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  meridian  in  the  new ;  yet  the  structure  of  the  op- 
posite coasts  of  the  Atlantic  points  at  some  connection  be- 
tween the  two. 

The  tendency  of  the  land  to  assume  a  peninsular  form  is 
very  remarkable;  and  it  is  still  more  so  that  almost  all  the 
peninsulas  tend  to  the  south,  while  to  the  north,  with  a  very 
few  exceptions,  the  two  great  continents  terminate  in  a  very 
broken  line,  and,  as  they  sink  under  the  Icy  Ocean,  the  tops 
of  their  high  lands  and  mountains  rise  above  the  waves^and 


34  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Stud  the  coast  with  innumerable  snow-clad  rocks  and  islands. 
Eastern  Asia  is  evidently  continued  in  a  subaqueous  conti- 
nent from  the  Indian  Ocean  across  the  Pacific  nearly  to  the 
west  coast  of  America,  of  which  New  Holland,  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  the  islands  of  the  Asiatic  coast  and  of  Oceanica, 
are  the  great  table-lands  and  summits  of  its  mountain-chains. 

Of  the  Polar  lands  little  is  known.  Greenland  probably 
is  part  of  a  continent,  the  domain  of  perpetual  snow  ;  and  the 
recent  discovery  of  so  extensive  a  mass  of  high  volcanic  land 
near  the  South  Pole  is  an  important  event  in  the  history  of 
physical  science,  though  the  stern  severity  of  the  climate 
must  forever  render  it  unfit  for  the  abode  of  animated  beings 
or  even  for  the  support  of  vegetable  life.  It  seems  to  form 
a  counterpoise  to  the  preponderance  of  dry  land  in  the 
northern  hemisphere.  There  is  something  sublime  in  the 
contemplation  of  these  lofty  and  unapproachable  regions — 
the  awful  realm  of  ever-during  ice  and  perpetual  fire,  whose 
year  consists  of  one  day  and  one  night.  The  strange  and 
terrible  symmetry  in  the  nature  of  the  lands  within  the  Polar 
circles,  whose  limits  are  to  us  a  blank,  where  the  antagonist 
principles  of  cold  and  heat  meet  in  their  utmost  intensity, 
fills  the  mind  with  that  awe  which  arises  from  the  idea  of 
the  unknown  and  the  indefinite. 

The  mountains,  from  their  rude  and  shattered  condition, 
bear  testimony  to  repeated  violent  convulsions  similar  to 
modern  earthquakes  ;  while  the  high  table-lands,  and  that 
succession  of  terraces  by  which  the  continents  sink  down  from 
their  mountain-ranges  to  the  plains,  to  the  ocean,  and  even 
below  it,  show  also  that  the  land  must  have  been  heaved  up 
occasionally  by  slow  and  gentle  pressure,  such  as  appears 
now  to  be  gradually  elevating  the  coast  of  Scandinavia  and 
many  other  parts  of  the  earth.  The  periods  in  which  these 
majestic  operations  were  eflfected  must  have  been  incalcula- 
ble, since  the  dry  land  occupies  an  area  of  nearly  thirty-eight 
millions  of  square  miles. 

The  division  of  the  land  is  very  unequal :  the  great  conti- 
nent has  an  area  of  about  twenty-four  millions  of  square  miles, 
while  the  extent  of  America  is  about  eleven  millions,  and 
that  of  Australia,  with  its  islands,  scarcely  three  ;  Africa  is 
more  than  three  times  the  size  of  Europe,  and  Asia  is  more 
than  four  times  as  large. 

The  peninsular  form  of  the  continents  adds  greatly  to  the 


FORM  OF  THE  GREAT  CONTINENT.  35 

extent  of  their  coasts,  of  such  importance  to  civilization  and 
commerce.  All  the  shores  of  Europe  are  deeply  indented 
and  penetrated  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  which  has  formed  a 
number  of  inland  seas  of  great  magnitude,  so  that  it  has  a 
greater  line  of  maritime  coast  compared  with  its  size  than 
any  other  quarter  of  the  world.  The  extent  of  coast  from 
the  Straits  of  Waigatz  in  the  Polar  Ocean  to  the  Strait  of 
Caffa  at  the  entrance  of  the  Sea  of  Azoff,  is  about  seventeen 
thousand  miles.  The  coast  of  Asia  has  been  much  worn  by 
currents,  and  possibly  also  by  the  action  of  the  ocean  occa- 
sioned by  the  rotation  of  the  earth  from  west  to  east.  On 
the  south  and  east  especially  it  is  indented  by  large  seas, 
bays,  and  gulfs  ;  and  the  eastern  shores  are  rugged,  and  en- 
compassed by  chains  of  islands  which  render  navigation  dan- 
gerous. Its  maritime  coast  is  about  thirty-three  thousand 
miles  in  length. 

The  coast  of  Africa,  sixteen  thousand  miles  long,  is  very 
entire,  except  perhaps  at  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  and  in  the  Me- 
diterranean. The  shores  of  North  America  have  probably 
been  much  altered  by  the  equatorial  current  and  the  gulf- 
stream.  There  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  these  currents,  com- 
bined with  volcanic  action,  have  hollowed  out  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  separated  the  Antilles  and  Bahama  Islands  from 
the  continent.  The  coast  is  less  broken  on  the  west,  but  in 
the  Icy  Ocean  there  is  a  labyrinth  of  gulfs,  bays,  and  creeks. 
The  shores  of  South  America,  on  both  sides,  are  very  entire 
except  towards  Cape  Horn  and  Southern  Chili,  where  the 
tremendous  surge  and  currents  of  the  ocean  in  those  high 
latitudes  have  eaten  into  the  mountains,  and  produced  end- 
less irregularities  and  fiords,  which  run  far  into  the  land. 
The  whole  continent  of  America  has  a  sea-coast  of  thirty-one 
thousand  miles.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  ratio  of  the  num- 
ber of  linear  miles  in  the  coast-line  to  that  of  square  miles  in 
the  extent  of  surface,  in  each  of  these  great  portions  of  the 
globe,  is  164  for  Europe,  376  for  Asia,  530  for  Africa,  and 
359  for  America.  Hence  the  proportion  is  most  favourable 
to  Europe  with  regard  to  civilization  and  commerce;  America 
comes  next,  then  iVsia,  and  last  of  all  Africa,  which  has 
every  natural  obstacle  to  contend  with,  from  the  extent 
and  nature  of  its  coasts,  the  desert  character  of  the  country, 
and  the  unwholesomeness  of  its  climate,  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
at  least. 


36  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  continents  had  been  raised  from  the  deep  by  a  power- 
ful effort  of  the  internal  forces  acting  under  widely-extended 
regions,  and  the  stratified  crust  of  the  earth  either  remained 
level,  rose  in  undulations,  or  sank  into  cavities,  according  to 
its  intensity.  Some  thinner  portion  of  the  earth's  surface, 
giving  way  to  the  internal  forces,  had  been  rent  into  deep 
fissures,  and  the  mountain  masses  had  been  raised  by  violent 
concussions,  perceptible  in  the  convulsed  state  of  their  strata. 
The  centres  of  maximum  energy  are  marked  by  the  pyroge- 
nous  rocks  which  generally  form  the  nucleus  or  axis  of  the 
mountain  masses,  on  whose  flanks  the  stratified  rocks  are  tilted 
at  all  angles  to  the  horizon,  whence  declining  on  every  side 
they  sink  to  various  depths  or  stretch  to  various  distances  on 
the  plains.  Enormous  as  the  mountain-chains  and  table- 
lands are,  and  prodigious  as  the  forces  that  elevated  them, 
they  bear  a  very  small  proportion  to  the  mass  of  the  level 
continents  and  to  the  vast  power  which  raised  them  even  to 
their  inferior  altitude.  Both  the  high  and  the  low  lands  had 
been  elevated  at  successive  periods  ;  some  of  the  very  highest 
mountain-chains  are  but  of  recent  geological  date,  and  some 
chains  that  are  now  far  inland  once  stood  up  as  islands 
above  the  ocean,  while  marine  strata  filled  their  cavities  and 
formed  round  their  bases.  The  influence  of  mountain-chains 
on  the  extent  and  form  of  the  continents  is  beyond  a  doubt. 

Notwithstanding  the  various  circumstances  of  their  eleva- 
tion, there  is  everywhere  a  certain  regularity  of  form  in  moun- 
tain masses,  however  unsymmetrical  they  may  appear  at  first, 
and  rocks  of  the  same  kind  have  identical  characters  in  every 
quarter  of  the  globe.  Plants  and  animals  vary  with  climate, 
but  a  granite  mountain  has  the  same  peculiarities  in  the 
southern  as  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  at  the  equator  as  near 
the  poles.  Single  mountains,  insulated  on  plains,  are  rare, 
except  where  they  are  volcanic  ;  they  generally  appear  in 
groups  intersected  by  valleys  in  every  direction,  and  more 
frequently  in  extensive  chains  symmetrically  arranged  in  a 
series  of  parallel  ridges,  separated  by  narrow  longitudinal 
valleys,  the  highest  and  most  rugged  of  which  occupy  the 
centre  :  when  the  chain  is  broad  and  of  the  first  order  in 
point  of  magnitude,  peak  after  peak  arise  in  endless  succes- 
sion. The  lateral  ridges  and  valleys  are  constantly  of  less 
elevation,  and  are  less  bold,  in  proportion  to  their  distance 
from  the  central  mass,  till  at  last  the  most  remote  ridges  sink 


HIGH  LANDS  OF  THE  GREAT  CONTINENT.        37 

down  into  gentle  undulations.  Extensive  and  lofty  branches 
div^erge  from  the  principal  chains  at  various  angles,  and  stretch 
far  into  the  plains.  They  are  often  as  high  as  the  chains 
from  which  they  spring,  and  it  happens  not  unfrequently  that 
these  branches  are  united  by  transverse  ridges,  so  that  the 
country  is  often  widely  covered  by  a  network  of  mountains, 
and,  at  the  point  where  these  offsets  diverge,  there  is  fre- 
quently a  knot  of  mountains  spreading  over  hundreds  of 
square  miles.  The  circumstances  of  elevation  are  not  the 
only  causes  of  that  variety  observed  in  the  summits  of  moun- 
tain-chains ;  a  very  minute  difference  in  the  composition  and 
internal  structure  of  a  rock  has  great  influence  upon  its  ge- 
neral form,  and  on  the  degree  and  manner  in  which  it  is  worn 
by  the  weather. 

One  side  of  a  mountain-range  is  usually  more  precipitous 
than  the  other,  but  there  is  nothing  in  which  the  imagination 
misleads  the  judgment  more  than  in  estimating  the  steepness 
of  a  declivity.  In  the  whole  range  of  the  Alps  there  is  not 
a  single  rock  which  has  1600  feet  of  perpendicular  height, 
or  a  vertical  slope  of  90°.  The  declivity  of  Mont  Blanc  to- 
wards the  Allee  Blanche,  precipitous  as  it  seems,  does  not 
amount  to  45°;  and  the  mean  inclination  of  the  Peak  of  Te- 
neriffe,  according  to  Baron  Humboldt,  is  only  12°  30'.  The 
Silla  of  Caraccas,  which  rises  precipitously  from  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  at  an  angle  of  53°  28',  to  the  height  of  between 
six  and  seven  thousand  feet,  is  a  majestic  instance  of  the 
nearest  approach  to  perpendicularity  of  any  great  height  yet 
known. 

Immediately  connected  with  the  mountains  are  the  high 
table-lands  which  form  so  conspicuous  a  feature  in  the  Asiatic 
and  American  continents.  These  perpetual  storehouses  of 
the  waters  send  their  streams  to  refresh  the  plains,  and  to 
afford  a  highway  between  the  nations.  Table-lands  of  less 
elevation,  sinking  in  terraces  of  lower  and  lower  level,  con- 
stitute the  links  between  the  high  ground  and  the  low,  the 
mountains  and  the  plains,  and  thus  maintain  the  continuity 
of  the  land.  They  frequently  are  of  the  richest  soil,  and  en- 
joy the  most  genial  climate,  affording  a  delightful  and  pic- 
turesque abode  to  man,  though  the  plains  are  his  principal 
dwelling.  Sloping  imperceptibly  from  the  base  of  the  infe- 
rior table-lands,  or  from  the  last  undulations  of  the  mountains 
to  the  ocean,  they  carry  off'  the  superfluous  waters.  Fruit- 
4 


38  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

fulness  and  sterility  vary  their  aspect ;  immense  tracts  of  the 
richest  soil  are  favoured  by  climate  and  hardly  require  cul- 
ture ;  a  greater  portion  is  only  rendered  productive  by  hard 
Jabour,  compelling  man  to  fulfil  his  destiny  ;  while  vast  re- 
gions are  doomed  to  perpetual  barrenness,  never  gladdened 
by  a  shower. 

The  form  of  the  great  continent  has  been  determined  by 
an  immense  zone  of  mountains  and  table-lands,  lying  between 
the  30th  and  40th  or  45th  parallels  of  north  latitude,  which 
stretches  across  it  from  W.S.W.  to  E.N.E.,  from  the  coasts 
of  Barbary  and  Portugal  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  farthest 
extremity  of  Asia  at  Behring's  Straits  in  the  North  Pacific. 
North  of  this  lies  an  enormous  plain,  extending  almost  from 
the  Pyrenees  to  the  utmost  part  of  Asia,  the  greatest  portion 
of  which  is  a  dead  level,  or  low  undulations,  uninterrupted, 
except  by  the  Scandinavian  and  British  system  on  the  north, 
and  the  Ural  chain,  which  is  of  small  elevation.  The  low 
lands  south  of  the  mountainous  zone  are  much  indented  by 
the  ocean,  and  of  the  most  diversified  aspect.  But  much  the 
greater  part  of  the  flat  country  lying  between  the  China  Sea 
and  the  river  Indus  is  of  the  most  exuberant  fertility,  w^hile 
that  between  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  foot  of  the  Atlas  is, 
with  some  happy  exceptions,  one  of  the  most  desolate  tracts 
on  the  earth.  These  southern  lowlands,  too,  are  broken  by 
a  few  mountain  systems  of  considerable  extent  and  height. 

The  Atlas  and  Spanish  mountains  form  the  western  extre- 
mity of  that  great  zone  of  high  lands  that  girds  the  old  con- 
tinent almost  throughout  its  extent.  These  two  mountain 
systems  were  certainly  at  one  time  united  ;  and,  from  their 
geological  formation,  and  also  the  parallelism  of  their  moun- 
tain-chains, they  must  have  been  elevated  by  forces  acting 
in  the  same  direction, — now^,  indeed,  the  Straits  of  Gibral- 
tar, a  sea-filled  chasm  of  unfathomable  depth,  divides  them. 

A  very  elevated  and  continuous  mountainous  region  ex- 
tends in  a  broad  belt  along  the  north-west  of  Africa,  from 
the  promontory  of  Gher  on  the  Atlantic  to  the  Gulf  of  Sidra 
on  the  Mediterranean,  inclosing  all  the  high  lands  of  Mo- 
rocco, Algiers,  and  Tunis.  It  is  bounded  by  the  Atlantic 
and  Mediterranean,  and  insulated  from  the  rest  of  Africa  by 
the  Sahara  desert. 

This  mountain  system  consists  of  three  parts.  The  chain 
of  the  Greater  Atlas,  which  is  farthest  inland,  extends  from 


THE    SPANISH    MOUNTAINS.  39 

Souse  near  the  Atlantic  to  the  Lesser  Syrte,  and  in  Morocco 
forms  a  mountain-knot  15,000  feet  high,  perpetually  covered 
with  snow. 

The  Lesser  Atlas  begins  at  Cape  Kotes  opposite  to  Gib- 
raltar, and  keeps  parallel  to  the  Mediterranean  till  it  attains 
the  Gharian  range  in  Tripoli,  the  last  and  lowest  of  the 
Little  Atlas,  which  runs  due  east  in  a  uniformly  diminishing 
line  till  it  vanishes  in  the  plains  of  the  Great  Syrte.  That 
long,  rugged,  but  lower  chain  of  parallel  ridges  and  groups, 
which  forms  the  bold  coasts  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  and 
the  Mediterranean,  is  only  a  portion  of  the  Lesser  Atlas, 
which  rises  above  it  majestically,  covered  with  snow.  The 
flanks  of  the  mountains  are  generally  covered  with  forests, 
but  their  summit  is  one  uninterrupted  line  of  bare  inaccessi- 
ble rocks,  and  they  are  rent  by  fissures  frequently  not  more 
than  a  few  feet  wide,  —  a  peculiar  feature  of  the  whole 
system. 

The  Middle  Atlas,  lying  between  the  two  great  chains,  con- 
sists of  a  table-land,  rich  in  valleys  and  rivers,  which  rises  in 
successive  terraces  to  the  foot  of  the  Greater  Atlas,  separated 
by  ranges  of  hills  parallel  to  it.  This  wide  and  extensive 
region  has  a  delightful  climate,  abounds  in  magnificent 
forests,  and  the  valleys  are  full  of  vitality.  The  crest  of  the 
Atlas  is  of  granite  and  crystalline  strata  ;  their  flanks  and 
lower  ranges  are  sandstone  and  limestone,  on  which  the  ter- 
tiary strata  rest.     . 

The  Spanish  peninsula  consists  chiefly  of  a  table-land  tra- 
versed by  parallel  ranges  of  mountains,  and  surrounded  by 
the  sea,  except  where  it  is  separated  from  France  by  the 
Pyrenees,  which  extend  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Bay 
of  Biscay,  but  are  continued  by  the  Cantabrian  chain  to 
Cape  Finisterre  on  the  Atlantic. 

The  Pyrenean  chain  is  of  moderate  height  at  its  extremi- 
ties, but  its  summit  maintains  a  waving  line  whose  mean 
altitude  is  7000  feet  ;  it  rises  to  a  greater  height  on  the  east ; 
its  highest  point  is  the  Pic  du  Midi,  11,000  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  snow  lies  deep  on  these  mountains  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  and  is  perpetual  on  the  highest 
parts  ;  but  the  glaciers,  which  are  chiefly  on  the  northern 
side,  are  neither  so  numerous  nor  so  large  as  in  the  Alps. 

The  greatest  breadth  of  this  range  is  about  sixty  miles, 
and  its  length  two  hundred  and  seventy.    It  is  so  steep  on 


40  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  French  side,  so  rugged,  and  so  notched,  that  from  the 
plains  below  its  summits  look  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw, 
whence  the  term  Sierra  has  been  appropriated  to  mountains 
of  this  form.  On  the  Spanish  side,  gigantic  sloping  offsets, 
separated  by  deep  precipitous  valleys,  penetrate  to  the  banks 
of  the  Ebro.  All  the  Spanish  mountains  are  torn  by  deep 
crevices,  the  beds  of  torrents  and  rivers. 

The  interior  of  Spain  is  a  table-land,  with  an  area  of 
93,000  square  miles,  nearly  equal  to  half  of  the  peninsula. 
It  dips  to  the  Atlantic  from  its  western  side,  where  its  alti- 
tude is  about  2500  feet.  There  it  is  bounded  by  the  Iberian 
mountains,  which  begin  at  the  point  where  the  Pyrenees 
take  the  name  of  the  Cantabrian  chain,  and  run  in  a  tor- 
tuous south-easterly  direction  through  all  Spain,  constituting 
the  western  boundary  of  Valencia  and  Murcia,  and  sending 
many  branches  through  those  provinces  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean. Its  most  elevated  point  is  the  Sierra  Urbian,  7272 
teet  high. 

Four  nearly  parallel  ranges  of  mountains  originate  in  this 
limiting  chain,  running  from  N.E.  to  S.W.  diagonally  across 
the  peninsula  to  the  Atlantic.  Of  these  the  high  Castilian 
mountains  and  the  Sierra  di  Toledo  cross  the  table-land  ; 
the  Sierra  Morena,  so  called  from  the  dingy  colour  of  its 
forests  of  Hermes  oak,  on  the  southern  edge  ;  and,  lastly, 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  though  only  a  hundred  miles  long  and 
fifty  broad,  the  finest  range  of  mountains  in  Europe  after  the 
Alps,  traverses  the  plains  of  Andalusia  and  Grenada.  The 
table-land  is  monotonous  and  bare  of  trees  ;  the  plains  of 
Old  Castile  are  as  naked  as  the  steppes  of  Siberia,  and  un- 
cultivated except  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  Corn  and 
wine  are  produced  in  abundance  on  the  wide  plains  of  New 
Castile  and  Estremadura  ;  other  places  serve  for  pasture. 
The  table-land  becomes  more  fertile  as  it  descends  towards 
Portugal,  which  is  altogether  more  productive  than  Spain, 
though  the  maritime  provinces  of  the  later  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean are  luxuriant  and  beautiful  with  a  semi-tropical  vege- 
tation. 

Granite,  crystalline  strata,  and  primary  fossiliferous  rocks 
prevail  chiefly  in  the  Spanish  mountains,  and  give  them 
their  peculiar  bold  serrated  aspect.  The  tracts  between  the 
])arallel  ranges  through  which  the  great  Spanish  rivers  flow 
to  the  Atlantic  appear  to  have  been  at  one  time  the  basins 
of  lakes. 


THE    FRENCH    AND    GERMAN    MOUNTAINS.  43 

The  mass  of  the  high  land  is  continued  through  the  south 
of  France,  at  a  much  lower  elevation,  by  chains  of  hiils  and 
table-lands,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  are  the  Montagues 
Noires,  and  the  great  platform  of  Auvergne,  once  the  theatre 
of  violent  volcanic  action.     It  continued  from  the  beginning 
to  the  middle  of  the  tertiary  period,  so  that  there  are   cra- 
ters of  various  ages  and  perfect  form  :  some  of  the  highest, 
as  the  Puy  de  Dome,  5000  feet  high,  are  trachytic  craters  of 
elevation  ;  Mont  Dore,  6200  feet  high,  is  probably  the  most 
elevated.     These  volcanic  mountains  of  Auvergne,  and  the 
Cevennes,  above  6000  feet  high,  are  the  most  remarkable  of 
the  French  system  ;  the  offsets  of  the  latter  reach  the  rio-ht 
bank  of  the  Rhone  and   the  Jura   mountains  of  the  Alpine 
range.     In  fact,  the  French  mountains  are  the  link  between 
the  more  elevated  masses  of  western  and  eastern  Europe. 

The  eastern  and  highest  part  of  the  European  portion  of 
the  mountain-zone  begins  to  rise  above  the  low  lands  about 
the  52d  parallel  of  north  latitude,  ascending  by  terraces, 
groups,  and  chains  of  mountains,  through  six  or  seven  de- 
grees of  latitude,  till  it  reaches  its  highest  point  in  the  great 
range  of  the  Alps  and  Balkan.  The  descent  on  the  south 
side  of  this  lofty  mass  is  much  more  rapid  and  abrupt,  and 
the  immediate  offsets  from  the  Alps  shorter  ;  but,  taking  a 
very  general  view,  the  Apennines  and  mountains  of  north- 
ern Sicily,  those  of  Greece  and  the  southern  part  of  Turkey 
in  Europe,  with  all  the  islands  of  the  adjacent  coasts,  are 
but  outlying  members  of  the  general  protuberance. 

The  principal  chain  of  the  Hyrcanian  mountains,  the  Su- 
detes,  and  the  Carpathian  mountains,  form  the  northern 
boundary  of  these  high  lands:  the  first,  consisting  of  three 
parallel  ridges,  extends  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  to 
the  centre  of  Germany,  about  51°  or  52°  of  N.  lat.,  with  a 
mean  breadth  of  about  a  hundred  miles,  and  terminates  in 
the  knot  of  the  Fichtelberge,  covering  an  area  of  9000  square 
miles,  on  the  confines  of  Bavaria  and  Bohemia.  The  Sudetes 
begin  on  the  east  of  this  group,  and,  after  a  circuit  of  three 
hundred  miles  round  Bohemia,  terminate  at  the  small  ele- 
vated plain  of  the  Upper  Oder,  which  connects  them  with 
the  Carpathian  mountains.  No  part  of  these  limiting  ranges 
attain  the  height  of  5000  feet,  except  the  Carpathians,  some 
of  which  are  very  high.  They  consist  of  mountain  groups, 
united  by  elevated  plains,  rather  than  of  a  single  chain  :  the 
4* 


42  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Tatra  mountains,  bisected  by  the  20th  meridian,  is  their 
loltiest  point.  This  range  is  high  also  in  Transylvania, 
before  it  reaches  the  Danube,  which  divides  it  from  a 
secondary  branch  of  the  Balkan.  Spurs  decline  in  undulations 
from  these  limiting  chains  on  the  great  northern  plain,  and 
the  country  to  the  south,  intervening  between  them  and  the 
Alps,  is  covered  with  an  intricate  net- work  of  mountains  and 
plains  of  moderate  elevation. 

The  higher  Alps,  which  form  the  western  crest  of  the  ele- 
vated zone,  begin  at  the  Capo  della  Melle,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Genoa,  and  bend  round  by  the  west  and  north  to  Mont 
Blanc  ;  then  turning  E.N.E.  they  run  through  the  Grisons 
and  Tyrol  to  the  Great  Glockner  in  40°  7'  N.  lat.  and  12° 
43  E.  long.,  where  the  higher  Alps  terminate  a  course  420 
miles  long.  All  this  chain  is  lofty  ;  much  of  it  is  above  the 
line  of  perpetual  congelation,  but  the  most  elevated  part  lies 
between  the  Col  de  la  Seigne,  on  the  west  shoulder  of 
Mont  Blanc,  and  the  Simplon.  The  highest  mountains  in 
Europe  are  comprised  within  this  space,  not  more  than  sixty 
miles  long,  where  Mont  Blanc,  the  highest  of  all,  has  an 
absolute  elevation  of  15,730  feet.  The  central  ridge  of  the 
higher  Alps  is  jagged  wdth  peaks,  pyramids,  and  needles  of 
bare  and  almost  perpendicular  rock,  rising  from  fields  of  per- 
petual snow  and  rivers  of  ice  to  an  elevation  of  14,000  feet. 
Many  parallel  chains  and  groups,  alike  nigged  and  snowy, 
press  on  the  principal  crest,  and  send  their  flanks  far  into 
the  lower  grounds.  Innumerable  secondary  branches,  hardly 
lower  than  the  main  crest,  diverge  from  it  in  various  direc- 
tions ;  of  these  the  chain  of  the  Bernese  Alps,  is  the  highest 
and  most  extensive.  It  breaks  off  at  St.  Gothard,  in  a  line 
parallel  to  the  principal  chain,  separates  the  Valais  from  the 
canton  of  Bern,  and  with  its  ramifications  forms  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  groups  of  mountain  scenery  in  Europe. 
Its  endless  maze  of  sharp  ridges  and  bare  peaks,  mixed  with 
gigantic  masses  of  pure  snow  fading  coldly  serene  into  the 
blue  horizon,  present  a  scene  of  sublime  quiet  and  repose, 
unbroken  but  by  the  avalanche  or  the  thunder. 

At  the  Great  Glockner,  the  range  of  the  Alps,  hitherto 
undivided,  splits  into  two  branches,  the  Noric  and  Carnic 
Alps  :  the  latter  is  the  continuation  of  the  chief  stem.  Never 
risuig  to  the  height  of  perpetual  snow,  it  separates  the  Tyrol 
and  Upper  Carinthia  from  the  Venetian  States,  and,  taking 


THE    ALPS.  43 

the  name  of  the  Julian  Alps  at  Mont  Terglou,  9380  feet 
above  the  sea,  runs  east  till  it  joins  the  eastern  Alps  or  Bal- 
kan, under  the  18th  meridian.  Offsets  from  this  chain 
cover  all  the  neighbouring  countries. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  width  of  the  Alpine  chain  ; 
that  of  the  higher  Alps  is  about  a  hundred  miles  ;  it  in- 
creases to  a  hundred  and  fifty  east  of  the  Orisons,  and 
amounts  to  two  hundred  between  the  loth  and  16th  meri- 
dians, but  is  not  more  than  eighty  at  its  junction  with  the 
Balkan. 

The  Stelvio,  9174  feet  above  the  sea,  is  the  highest  car- 
riage-pass in  these  mountains.  That  of  St.  Gothard  is  the 
only  one  which  goes  directly  over  the  crest  of  the  Alps. 
Passes  very  rarely  go  over  the  summit  of  a  mountain  ;  they 
generally  cross  the  water-shed,  ascending  by  the  valley  of  a 
torrent,  and  descending  by  a  similar  path  on  the  other  side. 

The  frequent  occurrence  of  extensive  deep  lakes  is  a 
peculiar  feature  in  European  mountains,  rarely  to  be  met 
with  in  the  Asiatic  system,  except  in  the  Altai',  and  on  the 
elevated  plains. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Jura,  whose  pastoral  summit  is 
about  3000  feet  above  the  sea,  there  are  no  elevated  table- 
lands in  the  Alps  ;  the  tabular  form,  so  eminently  character- 
istic of  the  Asiatic  high  lands,  begins  in  the  Balkan.  The 
Oriental  peninsula  rises  by  degrees  from  the  Danube  to  Bos- 
nia and  Upper  Macedonia,  which  are  some  hundred  feet 
above  the  sea  ;  and  the  Balkan  extends  six  hundred  miles 
along  this  elevated  mass,  from  the  Julian  Alps  to  Cape  Emi- 
nek  on  the  Black  Sea.  It  begins  by  a  table-land  seventy 
miles  long,  traversed  by  low  hills,  ending  towards  Albania 
and  Myritida  in  a  limestone  wall  from  six  to  seven  thousand 
feet  high.  Rugged  mountains,  all  but  impassable,  succeed 
to  this,  in  which  the  domes  and  needles  of  the  Schandach, 
or  ancient  Scamus,  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  An- 
other table-land  follows,  whose  marshy  surface  is  bounded 
by  mural  precipices  ending  at  Mount  Arbelus,  9000  feet 
high,  near  the  town  of  Sophia.  There  the  Hemus,  or  Bal- 
kan properly  so  called,  begins,  and  runs  in  parallel  ridges, 
separated  by  fertile  longitudinal  valleys,  to  the  Black  Sea, 
dividing  the  plains  between  the  Lower  Danube  and  the  Pro- 
pontis  into  nearly  equal  parts.  The  central  ridge  rises  at 
once  in  a  wall  4000  feet  high,  passable  in  few  places ;  and 


44  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

where  there   is  no  lateral  ridge   the  precipices   descend  at 
once  to  the  plains. 

The  Balkan  is  everywhere  rent  by  terrific  fissures  across 
the  chains  and  table-lands,  so  deep  and  narrow  that  day- 
light is  almost  excluded.  These  chasms  afford  the  safest 
passes  across  the  range  ;  the  others,  along  the  faces  of  the 
precipices,  are  frightful. 

The  Mediterranean  is  the  southern  boundary  of  the  elevated 
zone  of  Eastern  Europe,  whose  last  offsets  rise  in  rocky 
islands  along  the  coasts.  The  crystalline  mountains  of  Sar- 
dinia and  Corsica  are  outlying  members  of  the  Maritime 
Alps,  while  shorter  offsets  end  in  the  plains  of  Lombardy, 
forming  the  magnificent  scenery  of  the  Italian  lakes.  Even 
the  Apennines,  whose  elevation  has  given  its  form  to  the 
peninsula  of  Italy,  is  but  a  secondary,  on  a  greater  scale,  to 
the  broad  central  band,  as  well  as  the  mountains  and  high 
land  in  the  north  of  Sicily,  which  form  the  continuation  of 
the  Calabrian  chain. 

The  Apennines,  beginning  at  the  Maritime  Alps,  inclose 
the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  and  run  through  the  centre  of  Italy  in 
parallel  ranges  to  the  middle  of  Calabria,  where  they  split 
into  two  branches,  one  of  which  goes  to  Capo  de  Leuca  on 
the  Gulf  of  Torento,  the  other  to  Cape  Spartivento  in  the 
Straits  of  Messina.  The  whole  length  is  about  eight  hun- 
dred miles.  None  of  the  Apennines  come  within  the  line 
of  perpetual  snow,  though  it  lies  nine  months  in  the  year  on 
the  Gran  Sasso  dTtalia,  9521  feet  high  in  Abruzza  Ulteriore. 

Offsets  from  the  Julian  and  Eastern  Alps  render  Dalmatia 
and  Albania  perhaps  the  most  rugged  tract  in  Europe  ;  and 
the  Pindus,  which  forms  the  water-shed  of  Greece,  diverges 
from  the  latter  chain,  and,  running  south  two  hundred  miles, 
separates  Albania  from  Macedonia  and  Thessaly. 

Greece  is  a  country  of  mountains,  and,  although  none  are 
perpetually  covered  with  snow,  it  lies  nine  months  on  several 
of  their  summits.  The  chains  terminate  in  strongly  pro- 
jecting headlands,  which  reach  far  into  the  sea,  and  reappear 
in  the  numerous  islands  and  rocks  which  stud  that  deeply 
indented  coast.  The  Grecian  mountains,  like  the  Balkan, 
are  torn  by  transverse  fractures.  The  celebrated  Pass  of 
Thermopylae,  the  fdefile  of  Blatamana,  and  the  Gulf  of 
Salonica  are  examples.  The  Adriatic,  the  Dardanelles,  and 
the  Sea  of  Marmora  limit  the  secondaries  of  the  southern 
part  of  the  Balkan. 


ICE    IN    THE    ALPS.  45 

The  valleys  in  the  Alps  are  long  and  narrow  ;  those  among 
the  mountains  of  Turkey  in  Europe  and  Greece  are  mostly 
caldron-shaped  hollows,  often  inclosed  by  mural  rocks. 
Many  of  these  cavities  of  great  size  lie  along  the  foot  of  the 
Balkan.  In  the  Morea  they  are  so  encompassed  by  moun- 
tains that  the  water  has  no  escape  but  through  the  porous 
soil.  They  consist  of  tertiary  strata,  which  had  formed  the 
bottom  of  lakes.  Caldron-shaped  valleys  occur  in  most 
volcanic  countries,  as  Sicily,  Italy,  and  central  France. 

The  table-lands  which  constitute  the  tops  of  mountains  or 
of  mountain-chains  are  of  a  different  character  from  those 
terraces  by  which  the  high  lands  slope  to  the  low.  The 
former  are  on  a  small  scale  in  Europe,  and  of  a  forbidding 
aspect,  with  the  exception  of  the  Jura,  which  is  pastoral ; 
whereas  the  latter  are  almost  always  habitable  and  cultivated. 
The  mass  of  high  land  in  South-Eastern  Europe  shelves  on 
the  north  to  the  great  plain  of  Bavaria,  3000  feet  high  ; 
Bohemia,  which  slopes  from  1500  to  900,  and  Hungary, 
from  4000  above  the  sea  to  300.  The  descent  on  the  south 
of  the  Alps  is  six  or  seven  times  more  rapid,  because  the 
distance  from  the  axis  of  the  chain  is  shorter. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  to  estimate  the  quantity  of  ice  in  the 
Alps  ;  it  is  said,  however,  that,  independent  of  the  glaciers 
in  the  Orisons,  there  are  1500  square  miles  of  ice  in  the 
Alpine  range,  from  eighty  to  six  hundred  feet  thick.  Some 
glaciers  have  been  permanent  and  stationary  in  the  Alps 
time  immemorial,  while  others  now  occupy  ground  formerly 
bearing  corn  or  covered  with  trees,  which  the  irresistible 
force  of  the  ice  has  swept  away.  These  ice  rivers,  formed 
on  the  snow-clad  summits  of  the  mountains,  fill  the  hollows 
and  high  valleys,  hang  on  the  declivities,  or  descend  by 
their  weight  through  the  transverse  valleys  to  the  plains, 
where  they  are  cut  short  by  the  increased  temperature,  and 
deposit  those  accumulations  of  rocks  and  rubbish,  called 
moraines,  which  had  fallen  upon  them  from  the  heights 
above.  In  the  Alps  the  glaciers  move  at  the  rate  of  from 
twelve  to  twenty  feet  annually,  and,  as  in  rivers,  the  motion 
is  most  rapid  in  the  centre.  They  advance  or  retreat  ac- 
cording to  the  mildness  or  severity  of  the  season,  but  they 
have  been  subject  to  cycles  of  unknown  duration.  From 
the  moraines,  as  well  as  the  striae  engraven  on  the  rocks  over 
which  they  have  passed,  M.  Agassiz  has  ascertained  that  the 


46  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

valley  of  Chamouni  was  at  one  time  occapied  by  a  glacier 
that  had  moved  towards  the  Col  di  Balme.  A  moraine 
2000  feet  above  the  Rhone  at  St.  Maurice  shows  that  at  a 
remote  period  glaciers  had  covered  Switzerland  to  the  height 
of  2155  feet  above  the  Lake  of  Geneva. 

Their  increase  is  now  limited  by  various  circumstances — 
as  the  mean  temperature  of  the  earth,  which  is  always  above 
the  freezing-point  in  those  latitudes  ;  excessive  evaporation  ; 
and  blasts  of  hot  air,  which  occur  at  all  heights,  in  the  night 
as  well  as  in  the  day,  from  some  unknown  cause.  They 
are  not  peculiar  to  the  Alps,  but  have  been  observed  also 
on  the  glaciers  of  the  Andes.  Besides,  the  greater  the 
quantity  of  snow  in  the  higher  Alps,  the  lower  is  the  glacier 
forced  into  the  plains. 

Granite  no  doubt  forms  the  base  of  the  mountain  system 
of  Eastern  Europe,  though  it  more  rarely  comes  into  view 
than  might  have  been  expected.  Crystalline  schists  of 
various  kinds  are  enormously  developed,  and  generally 
form  the  most  elevated  pinnacles  of  the  Alpine  crest  and 
its  offsets ;  but  the  secondary  fossiliferous  strata  constitute 
the  chief  mass,  and  often  rise  to  the  highest  summits  ; 
indeed,  secondary  limestones  occupy  a  great  portion  of  the 
high  land  of  Eastern  Europe.  Calcareous  rocks  form  two 
great  mountain-zones  on  each  side  of  the  central  chain  of 
the  Alps,  and  rise  occasionally  to  altitudes  of  ten  or  twelve 
thousand  feet.  They  constitute  the  central  range  of  the 
Apennines,  and  fill  the  greater  part  of  Sicily.  They  are 
extensively  developed  in  Turkey  in  Europe,  where  the 
plateau  of  Bosnia  with  its  high  lands  on  the  south,  part  of 
Macedonia,  and  Albania  with  its  islands,  are  principally 
composed  of  them.  Tertiary  strata,  of  great  thickness,  rest 
on  the  flanks  of  the  Alps,  and  rise  in  some  places  to  a  height 
of  five  thousand  feet.  Zones  of  the  older  Pleiocene  period 
flank  the  Apennines  on  each  side,  filled  with  organic  re- 
mains;  and  half  of  Sicily  is  covered  with  the  newer  Pleio- 
cene strata. 

From  numerous  dislocations  in  the  strata,  the  Alps  ap- 
pear to  have  been  heaved  up  by  many  violent  and  repeated 
convulsions,  separated  by  intervals  of  repose,  and  different 
parts  of  the  chain  have  been  raised  at  different  times  ;  for 
example,  the  Maritime  Alps  and  the  south-western  part  of 
the  Jura  Mountains  were  raised  previous  to  the  formation  of 


TABLE-LANDS    OF    ASIA.  47 

the  chalk  :  but  the  tertiary  period  appears  to  have  been  that 
of  the  g^reatest  commotions  ;  for  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
lands  of  Europe  have  risen  since  the  beginning  of  that  epoch, 
and  those  that  existed  then  acquired  additional  height, 
though  some  sank  below  their  original  level.  During  that 
time  the  Alps  acquired  an  additional  elevation  of  between 
two  and  three  thousand  feet  ;  Mont  Blanc  then  reached  its 
present  altitude  ;  the  Apennines  rose  one  or  two  thousand 
feet  higher ;  and  the  Carpathians  seem  to  have  gained 
an  accession  of  height  about  the  same  period.  That  part  of 
the  Alpine  chain  lying  between  Mont  Blanc  and  Vienna  is 
said  to  have  acquired  its  last  accession  of  height  since  the 
seas  were  inhabited  by  the  existing  species  of  animals. 


CHAPTER  in. 


THE  HIGH  LANDS  OF    THE  GREAT  CONTINENT    [continued) THE 

CAUCASUS — THE     WESTERN     ASIATIC     TABLE-LAND      AND     ITS 
MOUNTAINS. 

The  Dardanelles  and  the  Sea  of  Marmora  form  but  a  small 
break  in  the  mighty  girdle  of  the  old  continent,  which  again 
appears  in  immense  table-lands  passing  through  the  centre 
of  Asia,  of  such  magnitude  that  they  occupy  nearly  two-fifths 
of  the  continent.  Here  every  thing  is  on  a  much  grander 
scale  than  in  Europe  ;  the  table-lands  rise  above  the  mean 
height  of  the  European  mountains,  and  the  mountains  them- 
selves that  gird  and  traverse  them  surpass  those  of  every  other 
country  in  altitude.  The  most  barren  deserts  are  here  to  be 
met  with,  as  well  as  the  most  luxuriant  productions  of  animal 
and  vegetable  life.  The  earliest  records  of  the  human  race 
are  found  in  this  cradle  of  civilization,  and  monuments  still 
remain  which  show  the  skill  and  power  of  those  nations  which 
have  passed  away,  but  whose  moral  influence  is  still  visible 
in  their  descendants.  Customs,  manners,  and  even  preju- 
dices, carry  us  back  to  times  beyond  the  record  of  history, 
or  even  of  tradition;  while  the  magnitude  with  which  the 
natural  w^orld  is  here  developed  evinces  the  tremendous  forces 
that  must  have  been  in  action  at  epochs  immeasurably  ante- 
rior to  the  existence  of  man. 


48  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  gigantic  mass  of  high  land  which  extends  for  6000 
miles  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Pacific  is  2000 
miles  broad  at  its  eastern  extremity,  700  to  1000  in  the  mid- 
dle, and  somewhat  less  at  its  western  termination.  Colossal 
mountains  and  elevated  terraces  form  the  edges  of  these  lofty 
plains. 

Between  the  47th  and  68th  eastern  meridians,  where  the 
low  plains  of  Hindostan  and  Bucharia  press  upon  the  table- 
land and  reduce  its  width  to  700  or  1000  miles,  it  is  divided 
into  two  parts  by  an  enormous  knot  of  mountains  formed  by 
the  meeting  of  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  the  Himalaya,  the  Thsung- 
ling,  and  the  transverse  ranges  of  the  Beloot  Tagh,  or  Cloudy 
Mountains:  these  two  parts  differ  in  height,  form,  and  mag- 
nitude. 

The  western  portion,  which  is  the  table-land  of  Persia  or 
plateau  of  Iran,  is  oblong,  extending  from  the  shores  of  Asia 
Minor  to  the  Hindoo  Coosh  and  the  Solimaun  range,  which 
skirts  the  right  bank  of  the  Indus.  It  occupies  an  area  of 
1,700,000  square  miles,  generally  about  4000  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  in  some  places  7000.  The  oriental  plateau  or  table- 
land of  Tibet,  much  the  largest,  has  an  area  of  7,600,000 
square  miles,  and  a  mean  altitude  of  14,000  feet,  and  in 
some  parts  of  Tibet  an  absolute  altitude  of  17,000  feet. 

As  the  table-lands  extend  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  so  also  do 
the  principal  mountain-chains,  as  well  those  wiiich  bound  the 
high  lands  as  those  which  traverse  them,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Beloot  Tagh,or  Bolor,  and  the  Solimaun  chains,  which 
run  from  north  to  south.  The  first  is  the  western  limit  of  the 
oriental  plateau,  the  other  the  boundary  of  the  table-land  of 
Persia. 

The  lofty  range  of  the  Caucasus,  which  extends  700  miles 
between  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  is  an  outlying  member 
of  the  Asiatic  high  lands.  Offsets  diverge  like  ribs  from  each 
side  of  the  central  crest,  which  penetrate  the  Russian  steppes 
on  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  cross  the  plains  of  Kara,  or  val- 
ley of  the  Kour  and  Rioni,  and  unite  the  Caucasus  to  the  table- 
land. Some  parts  of  these  mountains  are  more  than  15,000 
feet  high  ;  the  Elbrouz,  on  the  western  border  of  Georgia,  is 
17,796  feet.  The  central  part  of  the  chain  is  full  of  glaciers, 
and  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow  is  at  the  altitude  of  11,000 
feet,  which  is  higher  than  in  any  other  chain,  except  the  Hi- 
malaya. 


THE    CAUCASUS.  49 

Anatolia,  the  most  western  part  of  the  table-land  of  Iran, 
3000  feet  above  the  sea,  is  traversed  by  short  chains  and 
broken  groups  of  mountains,  separated  by  fertile  valleys 
which  sink  rapidly  towards  the  archipelago  and  end  in  pro- 
montories and  islands  along  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor,  which 
is  a  country  abounding  in  vast  luxuriant  but  solitary  plains, 
watered  by  broad  rivers.  Single  mountains  of  volcanic  for- 
mation are  conspicuous  objects  on  the  table-land  of  Anatolia, 
w^hich  is  rich  in  pasture,  though  much  of  the  soil  is  saline 
and  covered  with  lakes  and  marshes.  A  triple  range  of  lime- 
stone mountains,  6000  or  7000  feet  high,  divided  by  narrow 
but  beautiful  valleys,  is  the  limit  of  the  Anatolian  table-land 
along  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  They  are  covered  with 
forests  to  the  height  of  4500  feet,  and  broken  by  wooden 
glens,  having  a  narrow  coast,  except  near  Trebizond,  where 
it  is  broad  and  picturesque.  The  high  land  is  bounded  on 
the  south  by  the  serrated  snowy  range  of  the  Taurus,  which, 
beginning  in  Rhodes,  Cos,  and  other  islands  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, fills  the  south-western  parts  of  Asia  Minor  with  rami- 
fications, and,  after  following  the  sinuosities  of  the  iron-bound 
coast  of  Karamania  in  a  single  lofty  range,  extends  at  Sami- 
sat,  where  the  Euphrates  has  pierced  a  way  through  this 
stony  girdle. 

About  the  50th  meridian  the  table-land  is  compressed  to 
nearly  half  its  width,  and  there  the  lofty  mountainous  regions 
of  Armenia,  Kourdistan,  and  Azerbijan  tower  higher  and 
higher  between  the  Black  Sea,  the  Caspian,  and  the  Gulf  of 
Alexandretta  in  the  Mediterranean.  Here  the  cold  treeless 
plains  of  Armenia,  the  earliest  abode  of  man,  7000  feet  above 
the  sea,  bear  no  traces  of  the  garden  of  Eden;  but  Mount 
Ararat,  on  which  the  ark  is  said  to  have  rested,  stands  a  soli- 
tary majestic  volcanic  cone  17,260  feet  above  the  sea, 
shrouded  in  perpetual  snow.  Though  high  and  cold,  the 
soil  of  Armenia  is  better  than  that  of  Anatolia,  and  is  better 
cultivated.  It  shelves  on  the  north  in  luxuriant  and  beauti- 
ful declivities  to  the  low  and  undulatinof  vallev  of  Kara,  south 
of  the  Caucasus;  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  broad  and  lofty 
belt  of  the  Kourdistan  Mountains,  rising  abruptly  in  many 
parallel  ranges  from  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia,  form  its 
southern  limit,  and  spread  their  ramifications  wide  over  its 
surface.  They  are  rent  by  deep  ravines,  and  in  many  places 
are  so  rugged  that  communication  between  the  villages  is 
5 


50  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

always  difficult,  and  in  winter  impracticable  from  the  depth 
of  snow.  The  line  of  perpetual  congelation  is  decided  and 
even  along  their  summit;  their  flanks  are  wooded,  and  the 
valleys  populous  and  fertile. 

A  thousand  square  miles  of  Kourdistan  is  occupied  by  the 
brackish  lake  Van,  which  is  seldom  frozen,  though  5467 
feet  above  the  sea  and  surrounded  by  lofty  mountains. 

The  Persian  mountains,  of  which  the  Elbrouz  is  the  prin- 
cipal chain,  extend  along  the  northern  brink  of  the  plateau, 
from  Armenia,  almost  parallel  to  the  shores  of  the  Caspian 
Sea,  maintaining  a  considerable  elevation  up  to  the  volcanic 
mountain  Demavend,  near  Tehran,  their  culminating  point, 
14,600  feet  high,  which,  though  90  miles  inland,  is  a  land- 
mark to  sailors  on  the  Caspian.  Elevated  offsets  of  these 
mountains  cover  the  volcanic  table-land  of  Azerbijan,  the 
fire  country  of  Zoroaster,  and  one  of  the  best  provinces  in 
Persia  ;  there  the  Koh  Savalan  elevates  its  volcanic  cone 
12,000  feet.  Beautiful  plains,  pure  streams,  and  peaceful 
glades,  interspersed  with  villages,  lie  among  the  mountains, 
and  the  Vale  of  Khosran  Shah,  a  picture  of  sylvan  beauty,  is 
celebrated  as  one  of  the  five  paradises  of  Persian  poetry. 
The  vegetation  at  the  foot  of  these  mountains  on  the  shores 
of  the  Caspian  has  all  the  exuberance  of  a  tropical  jungle. 
The  Elbrouz  loses  its  height  to  the  east  of  Demavend,  and 
then  joins  the  mountains  of  Khorasan  and  the  Parapamisan 
range,  which  appear  to  be  chains  of  mountains  when  viewed 
from  the  low  plains  of  Khorasan  and  Balkh,  but  on  the 
table-land  of  Persia  they  merely  form  a  broad  hilly  country 
of  rich  soil  till  they  join  the  Hindoo  Coosh. 

The  table-land  of  Iran  is  bounded,  for  a  thousand  miles 
along  the  Persian  Gulf  and  Indian  Ocean,  by  a  mountainous 
belt  of  from  three  to  seven  parallel  ranges,  having  an  average 
width  of  200  miles,  and  extending  from  the  extremity  of  the 
Kourdistan  Mountains  to  the  mouth  of  the  Indus.  The 
Lasistan  Mountains,  which  form  the  northern  part  of  this 
belt,  and  bound  the  vast  level  plain  of  the  Tigris,  rise  from 
it  in  a  succession  of  high  table-lands  divided  by  very  rugged 
mountains,  the  last  ridge  of  which,  mostly  covered  with 
snow,  abuts  on  the  table-land  of  Persia.  Oaks  clothe  their 
flanks  ;  the  valleys  are  of  generous  soil,  verdant  and  culti- 
vated ;  and  many  rivers  flow  through  them  to  swell  the 
stream  of  the   Tigris.     Insulated   hill   forts,  from   2000   to 


BARRENNESS    OF    PERSIAN    SOIL.  51 

5000  feet  high,  occur  in  this  country,  with  flat  cultivated 
tops  some  miles  in  extent,  accessible  only  by  ladders  or 
holes  cut  in  their  precipitous  sides.  These  countries  are 
full  of  ancient  inscriptions  and  remains  of  antiquity.  The 
moisture  decreases  more  and  more  south  from  Shiraz,  and 
then  the  parallel  ridges,  repulsive  in  aspect  and  difficult  to 
pass,  are  separated  by  arid  longitudinal  valleys,  which 
ascend  like  steps  from  the  narrow  shores  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  to  the  table-land.  The  coasts  of  the  gulf  are  burning- 
hot  sandy  solitudes,  so  completely  barren  that  the  country 
from  Bassora  to  the  Indus,  a  distance  of  1200  miles,  is  a 
sterile  waste.  In  the  few  favoured  spots  on  the  terraces 
where  water  occurs  there  is  vegetation,  and  the  beauty  of 
these  valleys  is  enhanced  by  surrounding  sterility. 

With  the  exception  of  Mazenderan,  and  the  other  pro- 
vinces on  the  Caspian  and  in  the  Parapamisan  range,  Per- 
sia is  arid,  possessing  few  perennial  springs,  and  not  one 
great  river ;  in  fact,  three-tenths  of  the  country  is  desert, 
and  the  table-land  is  nearly  a  wide  scene  of  desolation.  A 
great  salt  desert  occupies  27,000  square  miles  between  Irak 
and  Khorasan,  of  which  the  soil  is  stiff  clay  covered  with 
efflorescence  of  common  salt  and  nitre,  often  an  inch  thick, 
varied  only  by  a  few  saline  plants  and  patches  of  verdure 
in  the  hollows.  This  dreary  waste  joins  the  large  sandy 
and  equally  dreary  desert  of  Kerman.  Kelat,  the  capital  of 
Belochistan,  is  7000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  round 
which  there  is  cultivation,  but  the  greater  part  of  that  coun- 
try is  a  lifeless  plain,  over  which  the  brick-red  sand  is  drifted 
by  the  north  wind  into  ridges  like  the  waves  of  the  sea, 
often  twelve  feet  high,  without  a  vestige  of  vegetation.  The 
blast  of  the  desert,  whose  hot  and  pestilential  breath  is  fatal 
to  man  and  animals,  renders  these  dismal  sands  impassable 
at  certain  seasons. 

Barren  lands  or  bleak  downs  prevail  at  the  foot  of  the 
Lukee  and  Solimaun  ranges  of  bare  porphyry  and  sandstone, 
which  skirt  the  eastern  edge  of  the  table-land  and  dip  to  the 
plains  of  Indus.  In  Afghanistan  there  is  cultivation  chiefly 
on  the  banks  of  the  streams  that  flow  into  Lake  Zorah,  but 
vitality  returns  towards  the  north-east.  The  plains  and 
valleys  among  the  offsets  from  the  Hindoo  Coosh  are  of 
surpassing  loveliness,  and  combine  the  richest  peaceful  beauty 
with  the  majesty  of  the  snow-capped  mountains. 


52  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE     HIGH    LANDS    OF    THE    GREAT    CONTINENT    [COntillUed) 

THE    ORIENTAL    TABLE-LAND    AND    ITS    MOUNTAINS. 

The  oriental  plateau,  or  table-land  of  Tibet,  is  an  irregular 
four-sided  mass  stretching  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  inclosed 
and  traversed  by  the  highest  mountains  in  the  world.  It  is 
separated  from  the  table-land  of  Persia  by  the  Hindoo  Coosh, 
a  branch  of  the  Himalaya,  which  occupies  the  terrestrial 
isthmus  between  the  low  lands  of  Hindostan  and  Bucharia. 
The  cold  dreary  plateau  of  Tibet  is  separated  on  the  south 
from  the  glowing  luxuriant  plains  of  Hindostan  by  the 
Himalaya,  which  extends  2800  miles  from  the  western 
extremity  of  the  Hindo  Coosh  in  Cabulistan  to  the  Gulf  of 
Tonkin  in  China.  The  chain  of  the  Altai,  to  the  north, 
4500  miles  long,  divides  the  table-land  from  the  deserts  of 
Asiatic  Siberia,  and,  stretching  to  the  sea  at  Okhotzk  under 
various  names,  it  bends  to  the  N.N.E.,  and  terminates  at 
Behring's  Straits,  the  utmost  extremity  of  Asia.  The  table- 
land terminates  in  the  east,  partly  in  the  long  Chinese  chain 
of  the  Khing-Khan  and  Inshan  Mountains,  which  stretch 
from  the  Altai  range  to  the  great  bend  in  the  Yellow  River 
in  China,  and  farther  south  by  the  nameless  and  almost 
unknown  magnificent  mountains  in  the  western  provinces 
of  the  Chinese  empire.  On  the  west  the  table-land  has  its 
limits  in  the  Beloot  Tagh,  or  Cloudy  Mountains,  the  Tartash 
Tagh  of  the  natives,  a  transverse  range,  which  leaves  the 
Hindoo  Coosh  nearly  at  a  right  angle  about  the  72d  degree 
of  E.  longitude,  and,  pursuing  a  northerly  direction,  is  sup- 
posed to  unite  the  latter  chain  to  that  of  the  Altai  ;  its  offsets, 
at  least,  extend  widely  in  that  direction.  It  forms  magni- 
ficent mountain-knots  with  the  diagonal  chains  of  the  table- 
land, and  is  the  water-shed  between  Independent  and  Chi- 
nese Tourkistan,  or  Tartary.  It  descends  in  a  succession 
of  tiers  or  terraces  through  the  countries  of  Bokhara  and 
Balkh  to  the  deep  cavity  in  which  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the 
Sea  of  AzofTlie,  and  forms,  with  the  Paralasa,  the  Solimaun 


THE    HIMALAYA.         '  53 

range,  and  the  Ural,  a  singular  exception  to  the  general 
parallelism  of  Asiatic  mountains.  Two  narrow  difficult 
passes  lead  over  the  Beloot  Tagh  from  the  low  plains  of 
Bucharia  and  Independent  Tourkistan  to  Kashgar  and  Yar- 
kand,  on  the  table-land  in  Chinese  Tartary. 

,The  table-land  itself  is  crossed  diagonally  from  west  to 
east  by  two  great  chains  of  mountains.  The  Kuen-leun,  or 
Chinese  range,  begins  about  35°  30'  N.  lat.  at  the  moun- 
tain-knot formed  by  the  Hindoo  Coosh  and  Himalaya,  and, 
running  eastward,  it  terminates  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Petcheli, 
and  covers  a  great  part  of  the  western  provinces  of  China 
with  its  branches.  The  Thian-shan,  or  Celestial  Mountains, 
lie  more  to  the  north  ;  they  begin  at  the  Beloot  Tagh,  and, 
running  along  the  42d  parallel,  sink  to  the  desert  of  the 
Great  Gobi,  about  the  centre  of  the  plateau,  but,  rising 
again,  they  end  in  various  branches  in  China.  The  latter 
chain  is  exceedingly  volcanic,  and,  though  so  far  inland, 
pours  forth  lava,  and  exhibits  all  the  other  phenomena  of 
volcanic  districts. 

Tibet  is  inclosed  between  the  Himalaya  and  the  Kuen- 
leun  ;  Tungut,  or  Chinese  Tartary,  lies  between  the  latter 
chain  and  the  Celestial  Mountains,  and  Zungary,  or  Mon- 
golia, betw^een  the  Celestial  range  and  the  Altai.  The 
Himalaya  and  Altai  ranges  diverge  in  their  easterly  courses 
so  that  the  table-land,  which  is  only  from  700  to  1000  miles 
wnde  at  its  western  extremity,  is  2000  between  the  Chinese 
province  of  Yunnan  and  the  country  of  the  Mantshu  Ton- 
guses. 

Of  all  these  vast  chains  of  mountains  the  Himalaya  and 
its  principal  branch  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  are  best  known; 
though  even  of  these  a  great  part  has  never  been  explored, 
on  account  of  their  enormous  height  and  the  depth  of  snow, 
which  make  it  impossible  to  approach  the  central  ridge, 
except  in  a  very  few  places. 

The  range  consists  of  three  parts:  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  or 
Indian  Caucasus,  which  extends  from  the  Parapamisan  range 
in  Afghanistan  to  Cashmere  ;  the  Himalaya,  or  Imaus  of  the 
ancients,  which  stretches  from  the  valley  of  Cashmere  to  the 
sources  of  the  Brahmapootra;  and,  lastly,  the  mountains  of 
Bhotan  and  Assam, — the  three  making  one  magnificent  un- 
broken chain. 

The  Hindoo  Coosh,  which  has  its  name  from  a  mountain 
5* 


54  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

of  great  height  north  of  the  city  of  Cabul,  is  very  broad  to 
the  west,  extending  over  many  degrees  of  latitude,  and  toge- 
ther with  the  offsets  of  the  Beloot  Tagh,  fills  the  countries  of 
Kafferistan,  Koondez,  and  Budaksha.  From  the  plains  to 
the  south  it  seems  to  consist  of  four  distinct  ranges  running 
one  above  another,  the  last  of  which  abuts  on  the  table-lan^d, 
arid  is  so  high  that  its  snowy  summits  are  visible  at  the  dis- 
tance of  150  miles.  One  of  the  ridges  runs  along  the  table- 
land parallel  to  the  principal  chain  at  the  distance  of  200 
miles,  known  as  the  Ice  Mountains,  or  Kara-Korum  of  the 
natives.  Another  ridge  of  stupendous  height  incloses  the 
beautiful  valley  of  Cashmere,  to  the  east  of  which  the  chain 
takes  the  name  of  Himalaya,  "  the  dwelling  of  snow,"  and 
extends  300  miles  to  the  sources  of  the  Brahmapootra,  vary- 
ing in  breadth  from  250  to  350  miles,  and  occupying  an 
area  of  600,000  square  miles. 

The  general  structure  of  the  Himalaya  is  very  regular  ; 
the  first  range  of  hills  that  rise  above  the  plains  of  Hindostan 
is  alluvial,  north  of  which  lies  the  Tariyani,  a  tract  from  10 
to  30   miles  wide,  1000  feet  above  the  sea,  covered  with 
dense,  pestilential  jungle,  and  extending  along  the  foot  of 
the  range.     North  of  this  region   are  rocky  ridges,  5000  or 
6000  feet  high.     Between  these  and  the  higher  ranges  lie 
the  peaceful  and  well-cultivated  valleys  of  Nepaul,  Bhotan, 
and  Assam,  of  inexhaustible  fertility,  interspersed  with  pic- 
turesque and  populous  towns  and  villages.     Though  sepa- 
rated by  mountain-groups,  they  form  the  principal  terrace  of 
the   Himalaya,  between  the  Sutlej   and   the  Brahmapootra. 
Behind  these  are  mountains  from  10,000  to  12,000  feet  high, 
flanked  by  magnificent  forests,  and,  lastly,  the  snowy  ranges 
rise  in  succession  to  the  table-land. 

The  principal  and  most  elevated  chains  are  cut  by  nar- 
row, gloomy  ravines  and  transverse  dusky  gorges,  through 
which  the  torrents  of  melted  snow  rush  to  swell  the  rivers  of 
Hindostan.  The  character  of  the  valleys  becomes  softer  in 
the  lower  regions,  till  at  last  the  luxuriance  of  vegetation 
and  beauty  cannot  be  surpassed.  Transverse  valleys,  how^- 
ever,  are  more  frequent  in  the  Hindoo  Coosh  than  in  the 
Himalaya,  where  they  consist  chiefly  of  such  chasms  filled 
with  wreck  as  the  tributaries  of  the  Indus  and  Ganges  have 
made  in  bursting  through  the  chain. 

The  mean  height  of  the  Himalaya  is  stupendous,  certainly 


THE    HIMALAYA.  55 

not  less  than  from  16,000  to  20,000  feet,  though  the  peaks  ex- 
ceeding that  elevation  are  not  to  be  numbered,  especially  at 
the  sources  of  the  Sutlej  ;  indeed,  from  that  river  to  the  Kalee 
the  chain  exhibits  an  endless  succession  of  the  loftiest  moun- 
tains on  earth  :  forty  of  them  surpass  the  height  of  Chimborazo, 
the  highest  but  one  of  the  Andes,  and  many  reach  the  height 
of  25,000  feet  at  least.  So  rugged  is  this  part  of  the  magnifi- 
cent chain,  that  the  military  parade  at  Sabathoo,  half  a  mile 
long,  and  a  quarter  of  a  mile  broad,  is  said  to  be  the  only 
level  ground  between  it  and  the  Tartar  frontier  on  the  north, 
or  the  valley  of  Nepaul  to  the  east.  Towards  the  fruitful 
valleys  of  Nepaul  and  Bhotan  the  Himalaya  is  equally  lofty, 
some  of  the  mountains  being  from  25,000  to  28,000  feet 
high,  but  it  is  narrower,  and  the  descent  to  the  plains  ex- 
cessively rapid,  especially  in  the  territory  of  Bhotan,  where 
the  dip  from  the  table-land  is  more  than  10,000  feet  in  ten 
miles.  The  valleys  are  crevices  so  deep  and  narrow,  and 
the  mountains  that  hang  over  them  in  menacing  cliffs  are  so 
lofty,  that  these  abysses  are  shrouded  in  perpetual  gloom, 
except  when  the  rays  of  a  vertical  sun  penetrate  their  depths. 
From  the  steepness  of  the  descent  the  rivers  shoot  down 
with  the  swiftness  of  an  arrow,  filling  the  caverns  with  foam 
and  the  air  with  mist.  At  the  very  base  of  this  wild  region 
lies  the  elevated  and  peaceful  valley  of  Bhotan,  vividly 
green  and  shaded  by  magnificent  forests.  Another  rapid 
descent  of  1000  feet  leads  to  the  plain  of  the  Ganges. 

The  Himalaya  still  maintains  great  height  along  the  north 
of  Assam,  and  at  the  sources  of  the  Brahmapootra  the  parent 
stem  and  its  branches  extend  in  breadth  over  two  degrees  of 
latitude,  forming  a  vast  mountain  knot,  with  summits  20,000 
high.  Beyond  this  point  nothing  certain  is  known  of  the 
range,  but  it,  or  some  of  its  branches,  are  supposed  to 
cross  the  southern  provinces  of  the  Chinese  empire,  and  to 
end  in  the  volcanic  island  of  Formosa.  Little  more  is 
known  of  the  northern  side  of  the  mountains  than  that  the 
passes  are  about  5000  feet  above  the  plains  of  Tibet. 

The  passes  over  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  though  not  the  high- 
est, are  very  formidable  ;  there  are  six  from  Cabul  to  the 
plains  of  Turkistan,  and  so  deep  and  so  much  inclosed  are 
the  defiles,  that  Sir  Alexander  Burnes  never  could  obtain 
an  observation  of  the  pole  star  in  the  whole  journey  from 
Barmeean  till  within  30  miles  of  Turkistan. 


56  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Most  of  the  passes  over  the  Himalaya  are  but  little  lower 
than  the  top  of  Mont  Blanc  ;  many  are  higher,  especially 
near  the  Sutlej,  where  they  are  from  18,000  to  19,000  feet 
hish,  and  that  north-east  of  Khoonawur  is  20,000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  the  highest  that  has  been  attempted. 
All  are  terrific,  and  the  fatigue  and  suffering  from  the  rarity 
of  the  air  in  the  last  500  feet  is  not  to  be  described.  Ani- 
mals are  as  much  distressed  as  human  beings,  and  many  die. 
Thousands  of  birds  perish  from  the  violence  of  the  wind, 
the  drifting  snow  is  often  fatal  to  travellers,  and  violent 
thunder-storms  add  to  the  horror  of  the  journey.  The  Niti 
Pass,  by  which  Mr.  Moorcroft  ascended  to  the  sacred  lake 
of  Manasa  in  Tibet,  is  tremendous  ;  he  and  his  guide  had 
not  only  to  walk  barefooted  from  the  risk  of  slipping,  but 
they  were  obliged  to  creep  along  the  most  frightful  chasms, 
holding  by  tw'igs  and  tufts  of  grass,  and  sometimes  they 
crossed  deep  and  awful  crevices  on  a  branch  of  a  tree,  or 
loose  stones  thrown  across  ;  yet  these  are  the  thorough- 
fares for  commerce  in  the  Himalaya,  never  repaired  nor 
susceptible  of  improvement  from  the  frequent  landslips  and 
torrents. 

The  loftiest  peaks  being  bare  of  snow  gives  great  variety 
of  colour  and  beauty  to  the  scenery,  which  in  these  passes 
is  at  all  times  magnificent.  During  the  day  the  stupendous 
size  of  the  mountains,  their  interminable  extent,  the  variety 
and  sharpness  of  their  forms,  and,  above  all,  the  tender 
clearness  of  their  distant  outline  melting  into  the  pale  blue 
sky,  contrasted  with  the  deep  azure  above,  is  described  as  a, 
scene  of  wild  and  wonderful  beauty.  At  midnight,  when 
myriads  of  stars  sparkle  in  the  black  sky,  and  the  pure  blue 
of  the  mountains  looks  deeper  still  below  the  pale  white 
gleam  of  the  earth  and  snow-light,  the  effect  is  of  unparal- 
leled solemnity,  and  no  language  can  describe  the  splendour 
of  the  sunbeams  at  daybreak  streaming  between  the  high 
peaks,  and  throwing  their  gigantic  shadows  on  the  moun- 
tains below.  There,  far  above  the  habitation  of  man,  no 
living  thing  exists  ;  no  sound  is  heard  ;  the  very  echo  of  the 
traveller's  footsteps  startles  him  in  the  awful  solitude  and 
silence  that  reigns  in  these  august  dw^ellings  of  everlasting 
snow. 

Nature  has  in  mercy  mitigated  the   intense  rigor  of  the 
cold  in  these  high  lands  in  a   degree   unexampled   in   other 


THE    HIMALAYA.  57 

mountainous  regions.  The  climate  is  mild,  the  valleys  are 
verdant  and  inhabited,  corn  and  fruit  ripen  at  elevations 
which  in  other  countries,  even  under  the  equator,  would  be 
buried  in  permanent  snow. 

It  is  also  a  peculiarity  in  these  mountains,  that  the  higher 
the  range  the  higher  likewise  is  the  limit  of  snow  and 
vegetation.  On  the  southern  slopes  of  the  first  range  Mr. 
Gerard  found  cultivation  10,000  feet  above  the  sea;  in 
the  valleys  of  the  second  range  he  met  with  shepherds  feed- 
ing their  flocks  and  dwelling  at  the  height  of  14,000  feet  ; 
and  on  the  table-land  of  Tibet,  the  highest  habitation  of 
man  in  the  Old  World,  the  ground  is  cultivated  at  the  alti- 
tude of  13,600  feet,  which  is  only  2130  feet  lower  than  the 
summit  of  Mont  Blanc.  In  Chinese  Tartary  good  crops  of 
wheat  are  raised  16,000  feet  above  the  sea  ;  the  vine  and 
other  fruit  thrive  in  the  valleys  of  these  high  plains.  The 
temperature  of  the  earth  probably  has  some  influence  on  the 
vegetation  ;  as  many  hot  springs  exist  in  the  Himalaya  at 
great  heights,  there  must  be  a  source  of  heat  below  these 
mountains  which  in  some  places  comes  near  the  surface,  and 
possibly  may  be  connected  with  the  volcanic  fires  in  the 
central  chains  of  the  table-land.  Hot  springs  abound  in  the 
valley  of  Jumnotra  ;  and  as  it  is  well  known  that  many 
plants  thrive  in  very  cold  air  if  their  roots  are  well  pro- 
tected, it  may  be  the  cause  of  pine-trees  flourishing  in  that 
valley  nearly  13,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  of  the  splendid 
forests  of  the  deodar,  a  pine  that  grows  to  gigantic  size  even 
in  the  snow. 

According  to  Captain  and  Mr.  Gerard  the  line  of  perpe- 
tual congelation  is  at  an  elevation  of  only  12,800  feet  on  the 
southern  slopes  of  the  Himalaya,  while  on  the  northern  side 
it  is  15,600  feet  above  the  sea — a  remarkable  circumstance, 
which  is  ascribed  to  the  fogs  that  rise  from  the  plains  of  Hin- 
dostan  on  one  hand,  and  the  serenity  that  prevails  on  the 
other:  something  may  be  due  to  radiation  from  the  high 
northern  plains,  which,  being  so  near,  have  much  greater 
effect  on  the  temperature  than  the  warmer  but  more  distant 
plains  on  the  south. 

Four  vast  secondary  chains  leave  the  Himalaya  at  the 
great  mountain-knot  at  the  sources  of  the  Brahmapootra,  in 
the  Chinese  province  of  Yunnan,  and  extend  through  the 
Indo-Chinese  peninsula  and  the  countries  east  of  the  Ganges, 


58  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

in  a  southern  but  diverging  direction,  leaving  large  and  fer- 
tile kingdoms  between  them.  The  Birmano-Siamese  chain 
is  the  most  extensive,  reaching  to  the  extremity  of  the  Ma- 
layan peninsula  at  Cape  Romania,  the  most  southerly  point 
of  Asia;  it  may  be  traced  through  the  island  of  Sumatra  pa- 
rallel to  the  coast,  and  also  in  the  islands  of  Banka  and  Beli- 
ton,  where  it  ends. 

Another  range,  called  the  Laos-Siamese  chain,  forms  the 
eastern  boundary  of  the  kingdom  of  Siam,  and  the  Annama- 
tic  chain,  from  the  same  origin,  separates  the  empire  of 
Annam  from  Tonquin  and  Cochin  China. 

These  slightly  diverging  lines  of  mountains  yield  gold, 
silver,  tin,  of  the  best  quality,  in  great  plenty,  almost  on  the 
surface,  and  precious  stones,  as  rubies  and  sapphires.  Moun- 
tains in  low^  latitudes  have  nothing  of  the  severe  character  of 
those  in  less  favoured  climes.  Magnificent  forests  reach  their 
summit;  spices,  dyes  of  brilliant  tints,  medicinal  and  odori- 
ferous plants  clothe  these  declivities  ;  and  in  the  low  grounds 
the  fruit  of  India  and  China  grow  in  perfection  in  a  soil 
which  yields  three  crops  of  grain  in  the  year. 

The  crest  of  the  Himalaya  is  of  stratified  crystalline  rocks, 
especially  gneiss,  with  large  granitic  veins,  and  beds  of  quartz 
of  huge  magnitude.  The  zone,  between  15,000  and  18,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  of  silurian  strata,  below 
which  sandstone  prevails :  granite  is  most  frequent  at  the 
base,  and  probably  forms  the  foundation  of  the  chain.  Strata 
of  comparatively  modern  date  occur  at  great  elevations. 
These  sedimentary  formations,  prevailing  also  on  the  accli- 
vities of  the  Alps  and  Apennines,  show  that  the  epochs  of 
elevation  in  parts  of  the  earth  widely  remote  from  one  ano- 
ther, if  not  simultaneous,  were  at  least  not  very  different. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  very  great  geological  changes 
have  taken  place  at  a  comparatively  recent  period  in  the 
Himalaya,  and  through  an  extensive  part  of  the  Asiatic  con- 
tinent. 

The  Altai  mountains,  which  form  the  northern  naargin  of 
the  table-land,  are  unconnected  with  the  Ural  chain  :  they 
arc  separated  from  it  by  400  miles  of  a  low  marshy  country, 
part  of  the  steppe  of  the  Kirghiz,  and  by  the  Dalai  mountains, 
a  low  range  never  above  2000  feet  high,  which  runs  between 
the  64th  meridian  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Irtysh.  The  Altai 
chain  begins  on  the  right  bank  of  that  river  at  the  north-west 


THE    ALTAI.  59 

angle  of  the  table-land,  and  extends  in  a  serpentine  line  to 
the  Pacific,  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Okholzk,  dividing  the  high 
lands  of  Tartary  and  China  from  the  wastes  of  Asiatic  Sibe- 
ria.    Under  the  name  of  the  Aldan  Mountains  it  skirts  the 
north-west  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Okhotzk,  and  then  stretches 
to   Behring's  Straits,  its    length    being    4500   miles.     The 
breadth  of  this  chain  varies  from  400  to  1000  miles,  but  to- 
wards the  105th  meridian  it  is  contracted  to  about  150,  by 
a  projection  of  the  desert  of  the  Great  Gobi.    Its  height  bears 
no  proportion  to  its  length  and  breadth.     Indeed  the  Little 
Altai,  the  only  part  of  the  chain  properly  so  called  lying  be- 
tween the  Irtysh  and  the  86th  degree  of  east  longitude,  can 
only  be  regarded  as  a  succession  of  terraces  of  a  swelling  out- 
line, descending  by  steps  from  the  table-land,  and  ending  in 
promontories  on  the  Siberian   plains.     There  are  numerous 
large  lakes  on  these  terraces  and  on  the  mountain  valleys,  as 
in  the  mountain  systems  of  Europe.     The  general  form  of 
this  part  of  the  chain  is  monotonous  from  the  prevalence  of 
straight  lines  and  smooth  rounded  outlines.     Long  ridges 
with  flattened  summits,  or  small  table-lands,  not  more  than 
6000  feet  high,  is  their  usual  structure,  rarely  attaining  the 
line  of  perennial  congelation  :   snow  however  is  permanent 
on  the  Korgon  table-land,  9900  feet  above  the  sea,  supposed 
to  be  the  culminating  point  of  this  part  of  the  chain.     These 
table-lands  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  those  in  the  Scandi- 
navian mountains  in  baldness  and  sterility,  but  their  flanks  are 
clothed  with  forests,  verdant  meadows,  and  pastoral  valleys. 
East  of  the  86th  meridian  this  region  of  low  mountains 
splits  into  three  branches,  inclosing  longitudinal  valleys  for 
450  miles.     The  central  chain,  called  the  Tongnou  Oola, 
may  be  regarded  as  the  principal  continuation  of  the  Altai: 
it  lies  nearly  along 4he  50th  parallel  of  latitude,  but,  bend- 
ing northwards,  passes  between  the  lakes  Kossagol  and  Baikal 
under  the  name  of  the  Sayansk  Mountains.     The    granite 
range  of  the  Baikal,  properly  so  called,  meets  the  Sayansk 
chain   nearly  at  right   angles,  and  unites  it  with  the  moun- 
tains of  the  Upper  Angara.     At  the  point  where   the  axes 
of  the  Baikal    and    Sayansk    chains    cross,  the    mountains 
are   highest,  and   there  only  the  Altai   assumes   the  form  of 
a  regular  chain.     The   principal    part  of  the  Baikal   group 
is  500  miles  long,  from   10  to  60  wide,  high  and  snow-cap- 
ped, but  without  glaciers.  It  flanks  Lake  Baikal  on  the  north, 


60  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  largest  of  Alpine  lakes,  so  imbedded  in  a  knot  of  moun- 
tains, partly  granitic,  partly  volcanic,  that  rocks  and  pillars 
of  granite  rise  from  its  bed.  The  mountains  south  of  the 
lake  are  but  the  face  of  the  table-land  ;  a  traveller  ascending 
them  finds  himself  at  once  in  the  desert  of  Gobi,  which 
stretches  in  unbroken  sadness  to  the  Great  Wall  of  China. 

The  Daouria  Mountains,  a  volcanic  portion  of  the  Altai", 
which  borders  the  table-land  on  the  north-east,  follow  the 
Baikal  chain  ;  and  farther  east,  at  the  sources  of  the  Aldan, 
the  Altai  range  takes  the  name  of  the  Yablonnoi  Khrebet, 
and  stretches  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Okhotzk  to  the  coast  of  the 
Pacific,  opposite  to  the  island  of  Tarakai  ;  while  another  part, 
1000  miles  broad,  fills  the  space  between  the  Gulf  of  Okhotzk 
and  the  river  Lena,  and  then,  bending  to  the  north-east,  ends 
in  the  peninsula  of  Kamtschatka. 

A  great  portion  of  the  Altai  chain  is  unknown  to  Euro- 
peans ;  the  innumerable  branches  that  penetrate  the  Chinese 
empire  are  completely  so  :  those  belonging  to  Russia  abound 
in  a  great  variety  of  precious  and  rare  metals  and  minerals — 
silver,  copper,  and  iron.  In  the  Yablonnoi  range  and  other 
parts  there  are  whole  mountains  of  porphyry,  with  red  and 
green  jasper  ;  coal  is  also  found  ;  and  in  a  branch  of  the  Altai, 
between  the  rivers  Obi  and  Yenissei,  there  are  mines  of  coal 
w^hich  were  set  on  fire  by  lightning,  and  have  continued  to 
burn  more  than  a  century.  The  Siberian  mountains  far  sur- 
pass the  Andes  in  the  richness  of  their  gold-mines.  The 
eastern  flank  of  the  Ural  chain,  and  some  of  the  northern  spurs 
of  the  Altai,  have  furnished  an  immense  quantity,  but  a  re- 
gion as  large  as  France  has  lately  been  discovered  in  Siberia 
covered  with  the  richest  gold  alluvium,  lying  above  rocks 
filled  with  that  precious  metal.  The  mines  of  the  Ural  and 
Altai  are  in  metamorphic  schists  adjacent  to  the  greenstones, 
syenites,  and  serpentines  that  have  caused  their  change  ;  and 
as  the  same  formation  prevails  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
the  Altai  and  Aldan  chains  almost  to  Kamtschatka,  there  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  the  whole  of  that  vast  region  is 
auriferous:  besides,  as  many  of  the  northern  offsets  of  the 
Altai'  are  particularly  rich,  it  may  be  concluded  that  the 
southern  branches  in  the  Chinese  empire  are  equally  so. 
Thus  all  southern  Siberia  and  Chinese  Tartary  form  an  auri- 
ferous district  probably  greater  than  all  Europe,  which  ex- 
tends even  to  our  dominions  in  Hindostan,  where  the  gold 
formations  are  unexplored. 


TIBET.  61 

The  sedimentary  deposits  in  this  extensive  mountain- 
range  are  more  ancient  than  the  granite,  syenite,  and  por- 
phyries ;  consequently  these  igneous  rocks  have  not  here 
formed  part  of  the  original  crust  of  the  globe.  Rocks  of 
the  Paleozoic  series  occupy  the  greater  part  of  the  Altai*, 
and  probably  there  are  none  more  modern.  There  are  no 
volcanic  rocks,  ancient  or  modern,  west  of  the  Yenesei,  but 
they  abound  to  the  east  of  that  river,  even  to  Kamtschatka, 
which  is  full  of  them. 

The  physical  characters  and  the  fossil  remains  of  this 
extensive  mountain  system  have  little  relation  with  the  geo- 
logical formations  of  Europe  and  America.  Eastern  Siberia 
seems  even  to  form  an  insulated  district  by  itself,  and  that  part 
between  the  town  of  Yakoutzk  and  the  mouth  of  the  Lena 
appears  to  have  been  raised  at  a  later  period  than  the  part 
of  Siberia  stretching  westward  to  the  Sayanok  Mountains  : 
moreover  the  elevation  of  the  Little  Altai  was  probably  con- 
temporaneous with  that  of  the  Ural  Mountains. 

Little  more  is  known  of  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  table- 
land of  Tibet  than  that  between  the  sources  of  the  Brahma- 
pootra and  the  Altai  chain  nearly  a  million  of  square  miles 
of  the  Chinese  empire  are  covered  with  mountains,  which 
begin  under  the  98th  meridian  at  the  edge  of  the  table-land, 
and  descend  to  the  112th  degree  of  east  longitude  in  southern 
China,  and  to  the  114th  degree  in  the  north.  The  eastern 
boundary  of  this  mountainous  region  is  said  to  be  the  chains 
of  the  In-Shan  and  Khing-Khan  Oolas.  The  former  begins 
at  the  southern  extremity  of  Tartary,  near  the  Yellow  River, 
and  maintains  a  very  tortuous  course  to  the  snow-clad 
mountains  of  Petsha,  15,000  feet  high.  It  then  goes  north, 
under  the  name  of  the  Khing-Khan  Oola,  in  a  serrated  granitic 
chain,  separating  the  table-land  of  Mongolia  from  the  country 
of  the  Manchoux,  and  joins  the  Yablonnoi  branch  of  the 
AltaY  at  right  angles  about  the  55th  degree  of  north  latitude. 

The  table-land  of  Tibet  is  only  4000  feet  above  the  sea 
towards  the  north,  but  it  rises  in  Little  Tibet  to  between 
11,000  and  12,000  feet.  The  Kuen-luen,  the  most  southerly 
of  the  two  diagonal  mountain-chains  that  cross  the  table- 
land, begins  at  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  in  latitude  35°  30',  and 
extends  eastward  in  two  branches,  which  again  unite  in  the 
K'han  of  eastern  Tibet,  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  table- 
land, where  they  form  an  elevated  mountain  plain  round 
6 


62  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  Lake  of  Koko-Nor,  from  whence  those  immense  moun- 
tain-ranges diverge  which  render  the  south-western  pro- 
vinces of  China  the  most  elevated  region  on  earth.  The 
country  of  Tibet  lying  between  the  Himalaya  and  the 
Kuen-luen  consists  of  rocky  mountainous  ridges,  extending 
froM  N.W.  to  S.E.,  separated  by  long  valleys,  in  which  flow 
the  upper  courses  of  the  Brahmapootra,  Sutlej,  and  Indus. 
According  to  Mr.  Moorcroft,  the  sacred  lake  Manasa,  in 
Great  Tibet,  and  the  surrounding  country,  is  17,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  which  is  1270  feet  higher  than  Mont  Blanc. 
In  this  elevated  region  the  sheltered  valleys  and  the  borders 
of  the  streams  alone  are  available  for  agriculture  ;  and  as  the 
summer  sun  is  powerful,  wheat  and  barley  grow,  and  many 
of  the  fruits  of  Southern  Europe  ripen.  The  city  of  H'Lassa, 
in  eastern  Tibet,  the  residence  of  the  Grand  Lama,  is  sur- 
rounded by  vineyards,  and  is  called  by  the  Chinese  the 
''  Realm  of  Pleasure."  There  are  no  trees  in  this  country, 
and  the  ground  in  cultivation  bears  a  small  proportion  to  the 
grassy  steppes,  which  extend  in  endless  monotony,  grazed 
by  thousands  of  the  shawl-wool  goats,  sheep,  and  cattle. 
There  are  many  lakes  in  the  table-land  ;  some  in  Ladok 
contain  borax,  a  salt  very  useful  in  the  arts,  found  only  here 
and  at  Corbali  in  Tuscany,  and  the  Lipari  islands. 

In  summer  the  sun  is  powerful  at  midday,  the  air  is 
of  the  purest  transparency,  and  the  azure  of  the  sky  so  deep 
that  it  seems  black  as  in  the  darkest  night.  The  rising 
moon  does  not  enlighten  the  atmosphere,  no  warning  radi- 
ance announces  her  approach,  till  her  limb  touches  the 
horizon,  and  the  stars  shine  with  the  distinctness  and  bril- 
liancy of  suns.  In  southern  Tibet  the  verdure  is  confined 
to  favoured  spots,  the  bleak  mountains  and  high  plains  are 
sternly  gloomy — a  scene  of  barrenness  not  to  be  conceived. 
Solitude  reigns  in  these  dreary  wastes,  where  there  is  not 
a  tree  nor  even  a  shrub  to  be  seen  of  more  than  a  few  inches 
height.  The  scanty,  short-lived  verdure  vanishes  in  October, 
the  country  looks  as  if  fire  had  passed  over  it,  and  cutting 
dry  winds  blow  with  irresistible  fury,  howling  in  the  bare 
mountains,  whirling  the  snow  through  the  air,  and  freezing 
to  death  the  unfortunate  traveller  benighted  in  their  defiles. 

Yarkand  and  Khotan,  provinces  of  Chinese  Tartary,  which 
lie  beyond  the  two  diagonal  chains,  are  less  elevated  and  more 
fertile  than   Tibet.     They  are  watered   by  five  rivers,  and 


DESERT    OF    THE    GREAT    GOBI.  63 

contain  several  large  cities  ;  Yarkand,  the  most  considerable 
of  these,  is  the  emporium  of  commerce  between  Tibet,  Tur- 
kistan,  China,  and  Russia.  Gold,  rubies,  silk,  and  other 
productions  are  exported. 

The  Tartar  range  of  the  Thian-Shan  is  very  high  ;  the 
Bogda  Oola,  or  Holy  Mountain,  near  Lake  Lop,  its  highest 
point,  is  always  covered  with  snow  ;  and  it  has  two  active 
volcanoes,  one  on  each  side — a  solitary  instance  of  volcanic 
vents  so  far  from  the  sea.  This  range  runs  along  the  42d 
parallel  of  north  latitude,  forming  at  its  western  extremity  a 
mountain-knot  with  the  Beloot  Tagh,  in  the  centre  of  which 
lies  the  small  table-land  of  Pamere,  15,600  feet  high,  called 
by  the  natives  the  "Roof  of  the  World."  Its  remarkable 
elevation  was  first  observed  by  the  enterprising  Venetian 
traveller,  Marco  Paolo,  six  centuries  ago.  The  Oxus  origi- 
nates in  a  glacier  of  the  Pooshtee  Khur,  a  peak  of  the  Beloot 
Tagh,  near  the  plain  of  Pamere  ;  and  the  lake  Sir-i-Kol  is 
here  the  source  of  the  Yarkand,  and  the  Kokan  also  rises 
from  this  plain,  which  is  intensely  cold  in  winter,  and  in 
summer  is  alive  with  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats. 

Zungary,  or  Mongolia,  the  country  between  the  Thian- 
Shan  and  the  Altai,  is  hardly  known  further  than  that  its 
grassy  steppes,  intersected  by  many  lakes  and  offsets  from 
the  Altai,  are  the  pasture-grounds  of  the  wandering  Kirghis. 

The  remarkable  feature  of  the  table-land  is  the  desert  of 
the  Great  Gobi,  which  occupies  an  area  of  300,000  square 
miles  in  its  eastern  extremity,  interrupted  only  by  a  few 
spots  of  pasture  and  low  bushes.  Wide  tracts  are  Hat  and 
covered  with  small  stones  or  sand,  and  at  a  great  distance 
from  one  another  there  are  low  hills,  destitute  of  wood  and 
water ;  its  general  elevation  is  about  4000  feet  above  the 
sea,  but  it  is  intersected  from  west  to  east  by  a  depressed 
valley  aptly  named  Shamo,  or  the  "  Sea  of  Sand,"  which 
is  also  mixed  with  salt.  West  from  it  lies  the  Han-Hai, 
the  "  Dry  Sea,"  a  barren  plain  of  shifting  sand  blown  into 
high  ridges.  Here,  as  in  all  deserts,  the  summer  sun  is 
scorching,  the  winter's  cold  intolerable.  All  the  plains  of 
Mongolia  are  intensely  cold,  because  the  hills  to  the  north 
are  too  low  to  screen  them  from  the  polar  blast,  and,  being 
higher  than  the  Siberian  deserts,  they  are  bitterly  cold  ;  no 
month  in  the  year  is  free  from  frost  and  snow,  yet  it  is  not 
jl       deep  enough  to  prevent  cattle  from  finding  pasture.     Sandy 


64  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

deserts   like   that  of  the   Great  Gobi  occupy  much  of  the 
country  south  of  the  Chinese  branches  of  the  Altai. 

Such  is  the  stupendous  zone  of  high  land  that  girds 
the  old  continent  throughout  its  whole  length.  In  the  ex- 
tensive plains  on  each  side  of  it  several  independent  moun- 
tain systems  rise,  though  much  inferior  to  it  in  extent  and 
height. 


CHAPTER  V. 

SECONDARY  MOUNTAIN  SYSTEMS  OF  THE  GREAT  CONTINENT 

THAT  OF  SCANDINAVIA GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND 

THE  URAL  MOUNTAINS THE  GREAT  NORTHERN  PLAIN. 

The  great  northern  plain  is  broken  by  two  masses  of  high 
land,  in  every  respect  inferior  to  those  described  :  they  are 
the  Scandinavian  system  and  the  Ural  Mountains,  the  arbi- 
trary limit  between  Europe  and  Asia. 

The  range  of  primary  mountains  which  has  given  its  form 
to  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  begins  at  Cape  Lindesnaes, 
the  most  southerly  point  of  Norway,  and,  after  running 
along  its  western  coast  1000  miles  in  a  north-easterly  di- 
rection, ends  at  Cape  Nord  Kyn  on  the  Polar  Ocean,  the 
extremity  of  Europe.  The  highest  elevation  of  this  chain 
is  not  more  than  8412  feet.  It  has  been  compared  to  a 
great  wave  or  billow,  rising  gradually  from  the  east,  which, 
after  having  formed  a  crest,  falls  perpendicularly  into  the 
sea  in  the  west.  There  are  3696  square  miles  of  this  pe- 
ninsula above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow. 

The  southern  portion  of  the  chain  consists  of  ridges  fol- 
lowing the  general  direction  of  the  range,  150  miles  broad. 
At  the  distance  of  360  miles  from  Cape  Lindesnaes  the 
mountains  form  a  single  elevated  mass,  terminated  by  a 
table-land,  which  maintains  an  altitude  of  4500  feet  for  100 
miles.  It  slopes  towards  the  east,  but  plunges  at  once  in 
high  precipices  into  a  deep  sea  on  the  west. 

The  surface  is  barren,  marshy  and  bristled  with  peaks; 
besides,  an  area  of  600  square  leagues  is  occupied  by  the 
Snae  Braen,  the  greatest  maSs  of  perpetual  snow  and  glaciers 
on  the  continent  of  Europe.     A  prominent  cluster  of  moun- 


MOUNTAINS    OF    GREAT    BRITAIN.  65 

tains  follows,  from  whence  a  single  chain,  25  miles  broad, 
maintains  an  uninterrupted  line  to  the  island  of  Megaree, 
where  it  terminates  in  North  Cape,  a  huge  barren  rock  per- 
petually lashed  by  the  surge  of  the  Polar  Ocean.  Offsets 
from  these  mountains  cover  Finland  and  the  low  rocky 
table-land  of  Lapland  :  the  valleys  and  countries  along  the 
eastern  side  of  the  chain  abound  in  forests  and  Alpine  lakes. 

The  iron-bound  coast  of  Norway  is  a  continued  series  of 
rocky  islands,  capes,  promontories,  and  precipitous  cliffs, 
rent  into  chasms  which  penetrate  miles  into  the  heart  of  the 
mountains.  These  chasms,  or  fiords,  are  either  partly  or 
entirely  filled  by  arms  of  the  sea  ;  in  the  former  case  the 
shores  are  fertile  and  inhabited.  Fiords  are  not  peculiar  to 
the  coast  of  Norway  ;  they  are  even  more  extensive  in  Green- 
land and  Iceland,  and  of  a  more  stern  character,  overhung 
by  snow-clad  rocks  and  glaciers. 

As  the  Scandinavian  mountains,  those  of  Feroe,  Britain, 
Ireland,  and  the  north-eastern  parts  of  Iceland  have  a  similar 
character,  and  follow  the  same  general  directions,  they  must 
have  been  elevated  by  forces  acting  in  parallel  lines,  and 
therefore  may  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  same  system. 

The  Feroe  islands,  due  w^est  from  Norway,  rise  at  once 
in  a  table-land  2000  feet  high,  bounded  by  precipitous 
cliffs,  which  dip  into  the  ocean.  Some  parts  of  these  islands 
are  gradually  sinking  below  their  former  level  ;  indeed  there 
seems  to  be  an  extraordinary  flexibility  in  the  crust  of  the 
earth  in  these  high  northern  latitudes ;  it  is  bendmg  below  its 
former  level  in  south  Sweden,  Feroe,  and  the  west  coast  of 
Greenland,  or  in  a  zone  between  the  55th  and  62d  or  63d 
parallels,  while  the  coast  of  Norway  is  rising  at  the  rate  of 
four  feet  in  a  hundred  years  from  Solvitsberg  northward  to 
Lapland,  where  the  elevation  is  greatest. 

The  rocky  islands  of  Zetland  and  those  of  Orkney  form 
part  of  the  mountain  system  of  Scotland  :  the  Orkney  islands 
have  evidently  been  separated  from  the  mainland  by  the 
Pentland  Firth,  where  the  currents  run  with  prodigious  vio- 
lence. The  north-western  part  of  Scodand  is  a  table-land 
from  1000  to  2000  feet  high,  which  ends  abruptly  in  the 
sea,  covered  with  heath,  peat-mosses,  and  pasture.  The 
general  direction  of  the  Scottish  mountains,  like  those  of 
Scandinavia,  is  from  north-east  to  south-west,  divided  by 
a  long  line  of  lakes  in  the  same  direction,  extending  from 
6* 

.: ^  ..  C.. 


66  '  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  Moray  Firth  completely  across  the  island  to  south  of  the 
island  of  Mull.  Lakes  of  the  most  picturesque  beauty 
abound  among  the  Scottish  mountains.  The  Grampian  hills, 
with  their  offsets  and  some  low  ranges,  fill  the  greater  part 
of  Scotland  north  of  the  Clyde  and  Forth.  Ben  Nevis, 
only  4374  feet  above  the  sea,  is  the  highest  hill  in  the  British 
islands. 

The  east  coast  of  Scotland  is  generally  bleak,  though  in 
many  parts  it  is  extremely  fertile,  and  may  be  cited  as  a 
model  of  good  cultivation  ;  and  the  midland  and  southern 
counties  are  not  inferior  either  in  the  quality  of  the  soil  or 
the  excellence  of  the  husbandry.  To  the  west  the  country 
is  wildly  picturesque  ;  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic,  penetrated 
by  the  sea,  w^hich  is  covered  with  islands,  bears  a  strong 
resemblance  to  that  of  Norway. 

There  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  the  Hebrides  formed  part 
of  the  mainland  at  some  remote  geological  period,  since  they 
follow  the  direction  of  the  mountain  system  in  two  parallel 
lines  of  rugged  and  imposing  aspect,  never  exceeding  the 
height  of  3200  feet.  The  undulating  country  on  the  borders 
of  Scotland  becomes  higher  in  the  west  of  England  and 
North  Wales,  where  the  hills  are  wild,  but  the  valleys  are 
cultivated  like  a  garden,  and  the  English  lake  scenery  is 
of  the  most  gentle  beauty. 

Evergreen  Ireland  is  mostly  a  mountainous  country,  and 
opposes  to  the  Atlantic  storms  an  iron-bound  coast  of  the 
wildest  aspect;  but  it  is  rich  in  arable  land  and  pasture, 
and  possesses  the  most  picturesque  lake  scenery;  indeed, 
fresh-water  lakes  in  the  mountain  valleys,  so  peculiarly 
characteristic  of  the  European  system,  are  the  great  orna- 
ments of  the  high  lands  of  Britain. 

Various  parts  of  the  British  islands  were  dry  land  while 
most  of  the  continent  of  Europe  was  yet  below  the  ancient 
ocean.  The  high  land  of  Lammermuir,  the  Grampian  hills 
in  Scotland,  and  those  of  Cumberland  in  England,  were 
raised  before  the  Alps  had  begun  to  appear  above  the  waves. 
In  general  all  the  highest  parts  of  the  British  mountains  are 
of  granite  and  stratified  crystalline  rocks.  The  primary  fos- 
siliferous  strata  are  of  immense  thickness  in  Cumberland 
and  in  the  north  of  Wales,  and  the  old  red  sandstone,  many 
hundred  feet  thick,  stretches  from  sea  to  sea  along  the  flanks 
of  the  Grampians.    The  coal  strata  are  developed  on  a  great 


THE    URAL.  67 

scale  in  the  south  of  Scotland  and  the  north  of  England,  and 
examples  of  every  formation,  with  one  exception,  are  to  be 
found  in  these  islands.  Volcanic  fires  had  been  very  active 
in  early  times,  and  nowhere  is  the  columnar  structure  more 
beautifully  exhibited  than  in  Fingal's  Cave  and  the  Storr 
of  Sky  in  the  Hebrides  ;  and  in  the  north  of  Ireland  a  base 
of  800  square  miles  of  mica  slate  is  covered  with  volcanic 
rocks,  which  end  on  the  coast  in  the  magnificent  columns 
of  the  Giant's  Causeway. 

The  Ural  chain,  the  boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia, 
is  the  only  interruption  to  the   level  of  the  great  northern 
plain,  and  is  altogether  unconnected  with,  and  far  separated 
from,  the  Altai  Mountains  by  salt  lakes,  marshes,  and  deserts. 
The  central  ridge  may  be  traced  from  between  the  Lake  of 
Aral  and  the  Caspian  Sea  ;  but  as  a  chain  it  really  begins  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Ural  river  at  the  steppes  of  the  Kirghis, 
about  the  51st  degree  of  north  latitude,  and  runs  due  north 
in  a  long  narrow  ridge  to  the  Gulf  of  Kara  in  the  Polar  Ocean, 
though  it  may  be  said  to  terminate  in  dreary  rocks  on  the 
west  side  of  Nova  Zembla.     The  Ural  range  is  about  the 
height  of  the  mountains  in  the  Black  Forest  or  the  Vosges, 
and,  with  few  exceptions,  is  wooded  to  the  top,  chiefly  by 
the  pinus  cimbra.     The  immense   mineral  riches  of  these 
mountains — gold,  platina,  magnetic  iron,  and  copper — lie  on 
the  Siberian  side,  and  chiefly  between  the  54th  and  60th  de- 
grees of  north  latitude,  the  only  part  that  is  colonized,  and 
one  of  the  most  industrious  and  civilized  regions  of  the  Rus- 
sian empire.     To  the  south  the  chain  is  pastoral,  about  100 
miles  broad,  consisting  of  longitudinal  ridges,  the  highest  of 
which  does  not  exceed  3498  feet;  in  this  part  diamonds  are 
found.     To  the  north  of  the  mining  district  the  narrow  mural 
mass,  which  is  at  most  but  5720  feet  above  the  sea-level,  is 
covered  with  impenetrable  forests  and  deep  morasses,  alto- 
gether uninhabitable  and  unexplored.     Throughout  the  Ural 
Mountains  there  are  neither  precipices,  transverse  gorges,  nor 
any  of  the  characteristics  of  a  high  chain  :  the   descent  on 
both  sides  is  so  gentle  that  in  many  places  it  is  difficult  to 
know  where  the  plain  begins;  and  the  road  over  the  chain 
from  Russia  to  Siberia  by  Ekaterinburg  is  so  low  that  it 
hardly  seems  to  be  a  mountain   pass.     The  gentle  descent 
and  sluggishness  of  the  streams  produce  extensive  marshes 
alono-  the  Siberian  base  of  the  range.     To  the  arduous  and 


68  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

enterprising  researches  of  Sir  Roderick  Murchison  we  are  in- 
debted for  almost  all  we  know  of  these  mountains  ;  he  found 
them  on  the  western  side  to  be  composed  of  silurian,  devo- 
nian, and  carboniferous  rocks  more  or  less  altered  and  crys- 
tallized ;  and  on  the  eastern  side  the  mines  are  in  metamor- 
phic  strata,  mixed  with  rocks  of  igneous  origin,  and  the  cen- 
tral axis  is  of  quartzose  and  chloritic  rocks. 

The  great  zone  of  high  lajid  which  extends  along  the  old 
continent  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  Ocean 
divides  the  low  lands  into  two  very  unequal  parts.  That  to 
the  north,  only  broken  by  the  Ural  range,  and  the  Valdai 
table-land  of  still  less  elevation,  stretches  from  the  Thames 
or  the  British  hills  and  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Seine  to  Beh- 
ring's  Straits,  including  more  than  190°  of  longitude,  and 
occupying  an  area  of  at  least  four  millions  and  a  half  of  square 
geographical  miles,  w^hich  is  a  third  more  than  all  Europe. 
The  greater  part  of  it  is  perfectly  level,  with  a  few  elevations 
and  low  hills,  and  in  many  places  a  dead  level  extends  hun- 
dreds of  miles.  The  country  between  the  Carpathian  and 
Ural  Mountains  is  a  flat,  on  which  there  is  scarcely  a  rise  in 
1500  miles,  and  in  the  steppes  of  southern  Russia  and  Sibe- 
ria the  extent  of  level  ground  is  immense.  The  mean  abso- 
lute height  of  the  flat  provinces  of  France  is  480  feet ;  Mos- 
cow, the  highest  point  of  the  European  plain,  is  also  480 
feet  high,  from  whence  the  land  slopes  imperceptibly  to  the 
sea  both  on  the  north  and  south,  till  it  absolutely  dips  below 
its  level.  Holland,  on  one  side,  would  be  overflowed  were 
it  not  for  its  rlykes,  and  towards  Astrakan  the  plain  sinks  still 
lower.  The  whole  of  that  extensive  country  north  and  east 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  around  the  lake  of  Aral,  forms  a  vast 
cavity  of  18,000  square  leagues,  all  considerably  below  the 
level  of  the  ocean  ;  and  the  surface  of  the  Caspian  Sea  itself, 
the  lowest  point,  has  a  depression  of  348  feet. 

The  European  part  of  the  plain  is  highly  cultivated  and 
very  productive  in  the  more  civilized  countries  in  its  western 
and  middle  regions  and  along  the  Baltic.  The  greatest 
amount  of  cultivated  land  lies  to  the  north  of  the  watershed 
which  stretches  from  the  Carpathians  to  the  centre  of  the 
Ural  chain  ;  yet  there  are  large  heaths  which  extend  from 
the  extremity  of  Jutland  through  Lunebourg  and  Westphalia 
to  Belgium.  The  land  is  of  excellent  quality  to  the  south  of 
it.     Round  Polkova  and  Moscow  there  is  an  extent  of  the 


THE    GREAT    NORTHERN    PLAIN.  69 

finest  veo-etable  mould,  equal  in  size  to  France  and  the  Spanish 
peninsula  together,  which  forms  part  of  the  High  Steppe,  and 
is  mostly  in  a  state  of  nature. 

A  large  portion  of  the  great  plain  is  pasture-land,  and  wide 
tracts  are  covered  with  natural  forests,  especially  in  Poland 
and  Russia,  where  there  are  millions  of  acres  of  pine,  fir,  and 
deciduous  trees. 

The  quantity  of  waste  land  in  Europe  is  very  great,  and 
there  are  also  many  swamps  ;  a  morass  as  long  as  England 
extends  along  the  52d  parallel  of  latitude,  follow^ing  the 
course  of  the  river  Prepit,  a  branch  of  the  Dniestre,  which 
runs  through  its  centre.  There  are  swamps  at  the  mouths  of 
many  of  the  sluggish  rivers  in  central  Europe  ;  they  cover 
1970  square  miles  in  Denmark,  and  mossy  quagmires  occur 
frequently  in  the  more  northerly  parts. 

Towards  the  eastern  extremity  of  Europe  the  great  plain 
assumes  the  peculiar  character  of  desert  called  a  steppe,  a 
word  supposed  to  be  of  Tartar  origin,  signifying  a  level  waste 
destitute  of  trees  ;  hence  the  steppes  may  vary  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  soil.  They  begin  at  the  river  Dnieper,  and 
extend  along  the  shores  of' the  Black  Sea:  they  include  all 
the  country  north  and  east  of  the  Caspian  Lake  and  Inde- 
pendent Tartary,  and,  passing  between  the  Ural  and  Altai 
Mountains,  they  may  be  said  to  occupy  all  the  low  lands  of 
Siberia.  Hundreds  of  leagues  may  be  traversed  east  from 
the  Dnieper  without  variation  of  scene  ;  a  dead  level  of  thin 
but  luxuriant  pasture,  bounded  only  by  the  horizon,  day  after 
day  the  same  unbroken  monotony  fatigues  the  eye  :  some- 
times there  is  the  appearance  of  a  lake,  which  vanishes  on 
approach,  the  phantom  of  atmospheric  refraction.  Horses 
and  cattle  beyond  number  give  some  animation  to  the  scene 
so  long  as  the  steppes  are  green,  but  winter  comes  in  Octo- 
ber, and  then  they  become  a  trackless  field  of  spotless  snow. 
Fearful  storms  rage,  and  the  dry  snow  is  driven  by  the  gale 
with  a  violence  which  neither  man  nor  animal  can  resist, 
while  the  sky  is  clear  and  the  sun  shines  cold  and  bright 
above  the  earthly  turmoil.  The  contest  between  spring  and 
winter  is  long  and  severe,  for — - 

"  Winter  oft  at  once  resumes  the  breeze, 
Chills  the  pale  morn,  and  bids  his  driving  sleets 
Deform  the  day,  delightless." 


70  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Yet  when  gentler  gales  succeed,  and  the  waters  run  off  in 
torrents  through  the  channels  which  they  cut  in  the  soft 
ground,  the  earth  is  again  verdant.  The  scorching  summer's 
sun  is  as  severe  in  its  consequences  in  these  wild  regions  as 
the  winter's  cold:  in  June  the  steppes  are  parched,  no  shower 
falls,  nor  does  a  drop  of  dew  refresh  the  thirsty  and  rent 
earth  :  the  sun  rises  and  sets  like  a  globe  of  fire,  and  during 
the  day  he  is  obscured  by  a  thick  mist  from  the  evaporation. 
In  some  seasons  the  drought  is  excessive  ;  the  air  is  filled 
with  dust  in  impalpable  powder;  the  springs  become  dry, 
and  cattle  perish  in  thousands.  Death  triumphs  over  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  nature,  and  desolation  tracks  the  scene 
to  the  utmost  verge  of  the  horizon,  a  hideous  wreck. 

Much  of  this  country  is  covered  by  an  excellent  but  thin 
soil,  fit  for  corn,  vvhich  grows  luxuriantly  wherever  it  has 
been  tried  ;  but  a  stiff  cold  clay  at  a  small  distance  below 
the  surface  kills  every  herb  that  has  deep  roots,  and  no  plants 
thrive  but  those  which  can  resist  the  extreme  vicissitudes  of 
climate.  A  very  wide  range  is  hopelessly  barren  ;  the  coun- 
try from  the  Caucasus  along  the  shores  of  the  Black  and  Cas- 
pian Seas,  a  dead  flat  twice  the  size  of  the  British  islands,  is 
desert  and  destitute  of  fresh  water.  An  efflorescence  of  salt 
covers  the  surface  like  hoar-frost ;  even  the  atmosphere  and 
the  dew  are  saline,  and  many  salt-lakes  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Astrakan  furnish  great  quantities  of  common  salt 
and  nitre.  Saline  plants,  with  patches  of  verdure  few  and 
far  between,  are  the  oidy  signs  of  vegetable  life,  but  about 
Astrakan  there  is  soil  and  cultivation.  Some  low  hills  occur 
in  the  country  between  the  Caspian  and  the  Lake  of  Aral, 
but  it  is  mostly  an  ocean  of  shifting  sand,  often  driven  by 
appalling  whirlwinds. 

Turkistan  is  a  sandy  desert,  except  on  the  banks  of  the 
Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes,  and  as  far  on  each  side  of  them  as 
canals  convey  the  fertilizing  waters.  To  the  north  barren- 
ness gives  place  to  verdure  between  the  Ural  river  and  the 
terraces  and  mountains  of  central  Asia,  where  the  steppes  of 
the  Kirghis  afford  pasture  to  thousands  of  camels  and  cattle 
belonging  to  these  wandering  hordes. 

Siberia  is  either  a  dead  level  or  undulating  surface  of 
more  than  7,000,000  of  square  miles,  between  the  North 
Pacific  aud  the  Ural  Mountains,  the  Polar  Sea  and  the  Altai 
range,  whose  terraces  and  offsets  end   in   those   plains,  like 


THE    GREAT    NORTHERN    PLAIN.  71 

headlands  and  promontories  in  the  ocean.  M.  Middendorf, 
indeed,  met  with  a  chain  of  most  desolate  mountains  on  the 
shores  of  the  Polar  Ocean,  in  the  country  of  the  Samoides; 
and  the  ahnost  inapproachable  coast  far  to  the  east  is  unex- 
plored. The  mineral  riches  of  the  mountains  have  brought 
too-ether  a  population  who  inhabit  towns  of  considerable 
importance  along  the  base  of  the  Ural  and  Altai  chains, 
where  the  ground  yields  good  crops  and  pasture  ;  and  there 
are  forests  on  the  undulations  of  the  mountains  and  on  the 
plains.  There  are  many  hundred  square  miles  of  rich  black 
mould  covered  with  trees  and  grass,  uninhabited,  between 
the  river  Tobal  and  the  upper  course  of  the  Obi,  within  the 
limit  where  corn  would  grow  ;  but  even  this  valuable  soil 
is  studded  with  small  lakes  of  salt  and  fresh  w-ater,  a  chain 
of  which,  300  miles  long,  skirts  the  base  of  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains. 

North  of  the  62d  parallel  of  latitude  corn  does  not  ripen, 
on  account  of  the  biting  blasts  from  the  Icy  Ocean  which 
sweep  supreme  over  these  unprotected  wastes.  In  a  higher 
latitude  even  the  interminable  forests  of  gloomy  fir  are  seen 
no  more  ;  all  is  a  wide-spreading  desolation  of  salt  steppes, 
boundless  swamps,  and  lakes  of  salt  and  fresh  water.  The 
cold  is  so  intense  there  that  the  spongy  soil  is  perpetually 
frozen  to  the  depth  of  some  hundred  feet  below  the  surface  ; 
and  the  surface  itself,  not  thawed  before  the  end  of  June,  is 
again  ice-bound  by  the  middle  of  September,  and  deep  snow 
covers  the  ground  nine  or  ten  months  in  the  year.  Happily 
gales  of  wind  are  not  frequent  during  winter,  but  when  they 
do  occur  no  living  thing  ventures  to  face  them.  The  sun, 
though  long  absent  from  these  dismal  regions,  does  not 
leave  them  to  utter  darkness  ;  the  extraordinary  brilliancy 
of  the  stars,  and  the  gleaming  snow-light,  produce  a  kind 
of  twilight,  which  is  augmented  by  the  splendid  coruscations 
of  the  Aurora  Borealis. 

The  scorching  heat  of  the  summer's  sun  produces  a  change 
like  magic  on  the  southern  provinces  of  the  Siberian  wilder- 
ness. The  snow  is  scarcely  gone  before  the  ground  is 
covered  with  verdure,  and  flowers  of  various  hues  blossom, 
bear  their  seed,  and  die  in  a  few  months,  when  winter  re- 
sumes his  empire.  A  still  shorter-lived  vegetation  scantily 
covers  the  plains  in  the  far  north,  and,  on  the  shores  of  the 
Icy  Ocean,  even  reindeer-moss  grows  scantily. 


72  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  abundance  of  fur-bearing^  animals  in  the  less  rigorous 
parts  of  the  Siberian  deserts  has  tempted  the  Russians  to 
colonize  and  build  towns  on  these  frozen  plains.  Yakutsk, 
on  the  river  Lena,  in  62°  1'  30"  N.  latitude,  is  probably 
the  coldest  town  on  earth.  The  ground  is  perpetually  frozen 
to  the  depth  of  more  than  400  feet,  of  which  three  feet  only 
are  thawed  in  summer,  when  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  is 
frequently  77°  in  the  shade  ;  and  as  there  is  sometimes 
no  frost  for  four  months,  larch  forests  cover  the  ground,  and 
wheat  and  rye  produce  from  fifteen  to  forty  fold.  In  winter 
the  cold  is  so  intense  that  mercury  is  constantly  frozen  two 
months,  and  occasionally  even  three. 

In  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  the  silurian,  devonian, 
and  carboniferous  strata  are  widely  developed,  and  more  to 
the  south  they  are  followed  in  ascending  order  by  immense 
tracts  of  the  higher  series  of  secondary  rocks,  abounding  in  the 
huge  monsters  of  a  former  world.  Very  large  and  interesting 
tertiary  basins  fill  the  ancient  hollows  in  many  parts  of  the 
plain,  which  are  crowded  with  the  remains  of  animals  that 
no  longer  exist.  Of  these  the  most  important  are  the  Lon- 
don, Paris,  Brussels,  and  Moscow  basins,  with  many  others 
in  the  north  of  Germany  and  Russia,  and  alluvial  soil  covers 
the  greater  part  of  the  plain.  In  the  east  Sir  Roderick  Mur- 
chison  has  determined  the  boundary  of  a  region  twice  as 
larf^e  as  France,  extending  from  the  Polar  Ocean  to  the 
southern  steppes,  and  from  beyond  the  Volga  to  the  flanks 
of  the  Ural  chain,  which  consists  of  a  red  deposit  of  sand 
and  marl,  full  of  copper  in  grains,  belonging  to  the  Permian 
system.  This,  and  the  immense  tract  of  black  loam  already 
mentioned,  are  the  principal  features  of  eastern  Europe. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE    SOUTHERN    LOW   LANDS   OF    THE   GREAT    CONTINENT,  WITH 
THEIR    SECONDARY    TABLE-LANDS    AND    MOUNTAINS. 

The  low  lands  to  the  south  of  the  great  mountain  girdle 
of  the  old  continent  are  much  broken  by  its  offsets,  by 
separate  groups   of  mountains,  and  still  more   by  the   deep 


CHINA.  73 

indentation  of  bays  and  large  seas.  Situate  in  lower  lati- 
tudes, and  sheltered  by  mountains  from  the  cutting  Siberian 
winds,  these  plains  are  of  a  more  tropical  character  than 
those  to  the  north  ;  but  they  are  strikingly  contrasted  in 
their  different  parts, — either  rich  in  all  the  exuberance  that 
heat,  moisture,  and  soil  can  produce,  or  covered  by  wastes 
of  bare  sand, — in  the  most  advanced  state  of  cultivation,  or 
in  the  wildest  garb  of  nature. 

The  barren  parts  of  the  low  lands  lying  between  the  eas- 
tern shores  of  China  and  the  Indus  bear  a  small  proportion 
to  the  riches  of  a  soil  vivified  by  tropical  warmth,  and 
watered  by  the  periodical  inundations  of  the  mighty  rivers 
that  burst  from  the  icy  caverns  of  Tibet  and  the  Himalaya. 
On  the  (contrary,  the  favoured  regions  on  that  part  of  the  low 
land  lying  between  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Euphrates,  and  the 
Atlas  Mountains,  are  small  when  compared  with  the  immense 
expanse  of  the  Arabian  and  African  deserts,  calcined  and 
scorched  by  an  equatorial  sun.  The  blessing  of  a  mountain 
zone,  pouring  out  its  everlasting  treasures  of  moisture,  the 
life-blood  of  the  soil,  is  nowhere  more  strikingly  exhibited 
than  in  the  contrast  farmed  by  these  two  regions  of  the  globe. 

The  Tartar  country  of  JVlandshur,  watered  by  the  river 
Amour,  but  little  known  to  Europeans,  lies  immediately 
south  of  the  Yablonnoi  branch  of  the  Altai  chain,  and  con- 
sequently partakes  of  the  desert  aspect  of  Siberia,  and,  in  its 
northern  parts,  even  of  the  Great  Gobi.  It  is  partly  inter- 
sected by  mountains,  and  covered  by  dense  forests  ;  neverthe- 
less, oats  grow  in  the  plains,  and  even  wheat  in  sheltered 
places.  Towards  Corea  the  country  is  more  fertile  ;  in  that 
peninsula  there  are  cultivated  plains  at  the  base  of  its  central 
mountain-range. 

China  is  the  most  productive  country  on  the  face  of  the 
earth  ;  an  alluvial  plain  of  210,000  square  miles,  formed  by 
one  of  the  most  extensive  river  systems  in  the  old  world, 
occupies  its  eastern  part.  This  plain,  seven  times  the  size 
of  Lombardy,  is  no  less  fertile,  and  perfectly  irrigated  by 
canals.  The  great  canal  traverses  the  eastern  part  of  the 
plain  for  700  miles,  of  which  500  are  in  a  straight  line  of 
considerable  breadth,  with  a  current  in  the  greater  part  of 
it.  Most  part  of  the  plain  is  in  rice  and  garden  ground,  the 
whole  cultivated  with  the  spade.  The  tea-plant  grows  on 
a  low  range  of  hills  between  the  30th  and  32d  parallels  of 
7 


74  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

north  latitude,  an  offset  from  the  Pe-Iing  chain.  The  cold 
in  winter  is  much  greater  than  in  corresponding  European 
latitudes,  and  the  heat  in  summer  is  proportionally  excessive. 

The  Indo-Chinese  peninsula,  lying  between  China  and 
the  river  Brahmapootra,  has  an  area  of  77,700  square  miles, 
and  projects  1500  miles  into  the  ocean.  The  plains  lying 
between  the  offsets  descending  from  the  east  end  of  the 
Himalaya,  and  which  divide  it  longitudinally,  as  before 
mentioned,  are  very  extensive.  The  Birman  empire  alone, 
which  occupies  the  valley  of  the  Irrawaddy,  is  said  to  be  as 
large  as  France,  and  not  less  fertile,  especially  its  southern 
part,  which  is  the  granary  of  the  empire.  Magnificent 
rivers  intersect  the  alluvial  plains,  whose  soil  they  have 
brought  down  from  the  table-land  of  Tibet,  and  still  con- 
tinue to  deposit  in  great  quantities  in  the  deltas  at  their 
mouths. 

The  plains  of  Hindostan  extend  2000  miles  along  the 
southern  slope  of  the  Himalaya  and  Hindoo  Coosh,  between 
the  Brahmapootra  and  the  Indus,  and  terminate  on  the  south 
in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  the  table-land  of  the  Decan,  and  the 
Indian  Ocean  —  a  country  embracing  in  its  range  every 
variety  of  climate,  from  tropical  heat  and  moisture  to  the 
genial  temperature  of  southern  Europe. 

The  valley  of  the  Ganges  is  one  of  the  richest  on  the 
globe,  and  contains  a  greater  extent  of  vegetable  mould, 
and  of  land  under  cultivation,  than  any  other  country  in  this 
continent,  except  perhaps  the  Chinese  empire.  In  its  upper 
part,  Sirhind  and  Delhi,  the  seat  of  the  ancient  Mongol  em- 
pire, still  rich  in  splendid  specimens  of  Indian  art,  are  partly 
arid,  although  in  the  latter  there  is  fertile  soil.  The  country 
is  beautiful  where  the  Jumna  and  other  streams  unite  to  form 
the  Ganges.  These  rivers  are  often  hemmed  in  by  rocks 
and  high  banks,  which  in  a  great  measure  prevent  the  peri- 
odical overflow  of  the  waters  ;  this,  however,  is  compen- 
sated by  the  coolness  and  moisture  of  the  climate.  The 
land  gradually  improves  towards  the  east,  as  it  becomes 
more  flat,  till  at  last  there  is  not  a  stone  to  be  seen  for  hun- 
dreds of  miles  down  to  the  Gulf  of  Bengal.  Wheat  and 
other  European  grain  is  produced  in  the  upper  part  of  this 
magnificent  valley,  while  in  the  south  every  variety  of  In- 
dian fruit,  rice,  cotton,  indigo,  opium,  and  sugar,  are  the 
staple  commodities.     The  ascent  of  the  plain  of  the  Ganges 


THE    PENINSULA    OF    HINDOSTAN.  75 

from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  is  so  gradual,  that  Saharampore, 
nearly  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya,  is  only  1100  feet  above 
the  level  of  Calcutta  ;  the  consequence  of  which  is,  that  the 
Ganges  and  Brahmapootra,  with  their  branches,  in  the  rainy 
season  between  June  and  September,  lay  Bengal  under 
water  for  hundreds  of  miles  in  every  direction,  like  a  great 
sea.  When  the  water  subsides,  the  plains  are  verdant  with 
rice  and  other  grain  ;  but  when  harvest  is  over,  and  the  heat 
intense,  the  scene  is  changed — the  country,  divested  of  its 
beauty,  becomes  parched  and  dusty  everywhere,  except  in 
the  extensive  jungles.  It  has  been  estimated  that  one-third 
of  the  British  territory  in  India  is  covered  with  these  rank 
marshy  tracts. 

The  peninsula  of  Hindostan  is  occupied  by  the  triangular- 
shaped  table-land  of  the  Decan,  which  is  much  lower,  and 
totally  unconnected  with  the  table-land  of  Tibet.  It  has 
the  primary  ranges  of  the  Ghauts  on  the  east  and  west,  and 
the  Vendhya  Mountains  on  the  north,  sloping  by  successive 
levels  to  the  plains  of  Hindostan  Proper.  The  surface  of 
the  Decan,  between  3000  and  4000  feet  above  the  sea,  is  a 
combination  of  plains,  ridges  of  rock,  and  insulated  flat- 
topped  hills,  which  are  numerous,  especially  in  its  north- 
eastern parts.  These  solitary  and  almost  inaccessible 
heights  rise  abruptly  from  the  plains,  with  all  but  perpen- 
dicular sides,  which  can  only  be  scaled  by  steps  cut  in  the 
rock,  or  by  very  dangerous  paths.  Many  are  fortified,  and 
were  the  strongholds  of  the  natives,  but  they  never  have 
withstood  the  determined  intrepity  of  British  soldiers. 

The  peninsula  terminates  with  the  table-land  of  the  My- 
sore, 7000  feet  above  the  sea,  surrounded  by  hills  1500 
higher. 

The  base  of  this  plateau,  and  indeed  of  all  the  Decan,  is 
granite,  and  there  are  also  syenitic  and  trap  rocks,  with 
abundance  of  primary  and  secondary  fossiliferous  strata. 
Though  possessing  the  diamond-mines  of  Golconda,  the  true 
riches  of  this  country  consist  in  its  vegetable  mould,  which 
in  the  Mysore  is  a  hundred  feet  thick,  an  inexhaustible 
source  of  fertility.  The  sea-coasts  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
peninsula  are  essentially  different :  that  of  Malabar  is  rocky, 
but  in  many  parts  well  cultivated,  and  its  high  mountains 
are  covered  with  forests  ;  whereas  on  the  Coromandel  coast 
the  mountains  are  bare,  and  the  wide  maritime  plains  are 
for  the  most  part  parched. 


76  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  island  of  Ceylon,  nearly  equal  in  extent  to  Ireland,  is 
almost  joined  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  peninsula  by 
sandbanks  and  small  islands,  between  which  the  water  is 
only  six  feet  deep  in  spring  tides.  The  Sanscrit  name  of 
the  "  Resplendent"  may  convey  some  idea  of  this  island, 
rich  and  fertile  in  soil,  adorned  by  lofty  mountains,  nume- 
rous streams,  and  primeval  forests  ;  in  addition  to  which  it  is 
rich  in  precious  stones,  and  has  the  pearl-oyster  on  its  coast. 

The  Asiatic  low  lands  are  continued  westward  from  the 
Indian  peninsula  by  the  Punjab  and  the  Great  Indian  Desert. 
The  Punjab,  or  "  country  of  the  five  rivers,"  lies  at  the  base 
of  the  Hindoo  Coosh.  Its  most  northern  part  consists  of 
fertile  terraces,  highly  cultivated,  and  valleys  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountains.  It  is  very  productive  in  the  plain  within  the 
limits  of  the  periodical  inundations  of  the  rivers,  and  where 
it  is  watered  by  canals  ;  in  other  parts  it  is  pastoral.  Lahore 
occupies  the  chief  part  of  the  Punjab  ;  and  the  city  of  that 
name  on  the  Indus,  once  the  rival  of  Delhi,  lies  on  the  high 
road  from  Persia  to  India,  and  was  made  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom  by  Runjeet  Sing.  The  valley  of  the  Indus  through- 
out partakes  of  the  character  of  the  Punjab  ;  it  is  fertile  only 
where  it  is  within  reach  of  water ;  much  of  it  is  delta,  which 
is  occupied  by  rice-grounds  ;  the  rest  is  pasture,  or  sterile 
salt  marshes. 

South  of  the  Punjab,  and  between  the  fertile  plains  of 
Hindostan  and  the  left  banks  of  the  Indus,  lies  the  Great 
Indian  Desert,  which  is  about  400  miles  broad,  and  becomes 
more  and  more  arid  as  it  approaches  the  river.  It  consists 
of  a  hard  clay,  covered  with  shifting  sand,  driven  into  high 
waves  by  the  wind,  with  some  parts  that  are  verdant  after 
the  rains.  In  the  province  of  Cutch,  south  of  the  desert,  a 
space  of  7000  square  miles,  known  as  the  Run  of  Cutch,  is 
alternately  a  sandy  salt  desert  and  an  inland  sea.  In  April 
the  waves  of  the  sea  are  driven  over  it  by  the  prevailing 
winds,  leaving  only  a  few  grassy  eminences,  the  resort  of 
wild  asses.  The  Desert  of  Mekram,  an  equally  barren  tract, 
extends  along  the  Gulf  of  Oman  from  the  mouths  of  the 
Indus  to  the  Persian  Gulf;  in  some  places,  however,  it  pro- 
duces the  Indian  palm  and  the  aromatic  shrubs  of  Arabia 
Felix. 

The    scathed   shores   of  the   Arabian   Gulf,    where  not  a 
blade  of  grass  freshens  the  arid  sands,  and  the  not  less  barren 


PENINSULA    OF    ARABIA.  77 

valley  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  except  where  the  floods 
of  these  rivers  irrigate  the  soil,  separate  Asia  from  Arabia 
and  Africa,  the  most  desert  regions  in  the  old  world. 

The  peninsula  of  Arabia,  divided  into  two  parts  by  the 
tropic  of  Cancer,  is  about  four  times  the  size  of  France.  No 
riv^ers,  and  few  streams  or  springs,  nourish  this  thirsty  land, 
whose  barren  sands  are  scorched  by  a  fierce  sun.  The  cen- 
tral is  a  table-land  of  moderate  height,  which,  however,  is 
said  to  have  an  elevation  of  8000  feet  in  the  province  of 
Haudramaut.  To  the  south  of  the  tropic  it  is  an  almost 
interminable  ocean  of  drifting  sand,  wafted  in  clouds  by  the 
gale,  and  dreaded  even  by  the  wandering  Beduin.  At  wnde 
intervals,  long,  narrow  depressions  cheer  the  eye  with  brush- 
wood and  verdure.  More  to  the  north,  mountains  and  hills 
cross  the  peninsula  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  inclosing  cultivated 
and  fine  pastoral  valleys,  adorned  by  groves  of  the  date- 
palm  and  aromatic  shrubs.  Desolation  once  more  resumes 
its  domain  where  the  table-land  sinks  into  the  Syrian  desert, 
and  throughout  the  rest  of  its  circumference  it  descends  in 
terraces  or  parallel  ranges  of  mountains  and  hills  to  a  flat 
sandy  coast,  from  30  to  100  miles  wide,  which  surrounds 
the  greater  part  of  the  peninsula,  from  the  mouths  of  the 
Euphrates  to  the  Isthmus  of  Suez.  The  hills  come  close  to 
the  beach  in  the  province  of  Oman,  which  is  traversed  by 
chains,  and  broken  into  piles  of  arid  mountains,  not  more 
than  3500  feet  high,  with  the  exception  of  the  Jebel  Okkdar, 
which  is  6000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  cleft  by  temporary 
streams  and  fertile  valleys.  Here  the  ground  is  cultivated 
and  covered  w^ith  verdure,  and  still  farther  south  there  is  a 
line  of  oases  fed  by  subterraneous  springs,  where  the  fruit 
common  to  Persia,  India,  and  Arabia  are  produced. 

The  south-eastern  coast  is  scarcely  known,  except  towards 
the  provinces  of  Haudramaut  and  Yemen,  or  Arabia  Felix, 
where  ranges  of  mountains,  some  above  5000  feet  high,  line 
the  coast,  and  in  many  places  project  into  the  ocean,  some- 
times forming  excellent  harbours,  as  that  of  Aden,  which  is 
protected  by  jutting  rocks.  In  the  intervals  there  are  towns 
and  villages, cotton-trees,  date-groves,  and  cultivated  ground. 

On  the  northern  side  of  these  granite  ranges,  where  the 

table-land  is  8000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  along  the  edge  of 

the  desert  of  El  Aklaj,  in  Haudramaut,  there  is  a  tract  of 

sand  so  loose  and  so  very  fine,  that  a  plummet  was  sunk  in 

7* 


78  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

it  by  Baron  Wrede  to  the  depth  of  360  feet  without  reach- 
ing  the  bottom.  There  is  a  tradition  in  the  country  that  the 
army  of  King  Suffi  perished  in  attempting  to  cross  this  desert. 
Arabia  Felix,  which  merits  its  name,  is  the  only  part  of  that 
country  with  permanent  streams,  though  they  are  small. 
Here  also  the  mountains  and  fertile  ground  run  far  inland, 
producing  grain,  pasture,  coffee,  odoriferous  plants,  and 
gums.  High  cliffs  line  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean  and 
the  Strait  of  Babelman-deb,  "  the  Gate  of  Tears."  The  fer- 
tile country  is  continued  a  considerable  way  along  the  coast 
of  the  Red  Sea,  but  the  character  of  barrenness  is  resumed 
by  degrees,  till  at  length  the  hills  and  intervening  terraces, 
on  which  Mecca  and  Medina,  the  holy  cities  of  the  Mahome- 
dans,  stand,  are  sterile  wastes  wherever  springs  do  not  w^ater 
them.  The  blast  of  the  desert,  loaded  with  burning  sand, 
sweeps  over  these  parched  regions.  Mountains  skirt  the 
table-land  to  the  north  ;  and  the  peninsula  between  the  Gulfs 
of  Akaba  and  Suez  on  the  Red  Sea,  the  Eliath  of  Scripture, 
is  filled  by  the  mountain-groups  of  Sinai  and  Horeb.  Jebel 
Housa,  Mount  Sinai,  on  which  Moses  received  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments, is  9000  feet  high,  surrounded  by  higher  moun- 
tains, which  are  covered  with  snow  in  winter.  The  group 
of  Sinai  is  full  of  springs,  and  verdant.  At  its  northern  ex- 
tremity lies  the  desert  of  El-Teh,  70  miles  long  and  30  broad, 
in  which  the  Israelites  wandered  forty  years.  It  is  covered 
w^ith  long  ranges  of  high  rocks,  of  most  repulsive  aspect,  rent 
into  deep  clefts  only  a  few  feet  wide,  hemmed  in  by  walls 
of  rock  sometimes  1000  feet  high,  like  the  deserted  streets 
of  a  Cyclopean  town.  The  whole  of  Arabia  Petrea,  Edom 
of  the  sacred  writers,  presents  a  scene  of  appalling  desola- 
tion, completely  fulfilling  the  denunciation  of  prophecy. 

A  sandy  desert,  crossed  by  low  limestone  ridges,  separates 
the  table-land  of  Arabia  from  the  habitable  part  of  Syria, 
which  the  mountains  of  Lebanon  divide  into  two  narrow 
plains.  These  mountains  may  almost  be  considered  offsets 
from  the  Taurus  chain;  at  least  they  are  joined  to  it  by  the 
wooded  range  of  Gawoor,  the  ancient  Amanus,  impassable 
except  by  two  defiles,  celebrated  in  history  as  the  Amanic 
and  Syrian  Gates.  The  group  of  Lebanon  begins  with  Mount 
Cavius,  which  rises  abruptly  from  the  sea  in  a  single  peak 
to  the  height  of  7000  feet,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Orontes. 
From  thence  the  chain  runs  south,  at  a  distance  of  about  20 


SYRIA. 


79 


miles  from  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  a  continuous 
line  of  peaks  to  the  sources  of  the  Jordan,  where  it  splits 
into  two  nearly  parallel  naked  branches,  inclosing  the  wide 
and  fertile  plain  of  Beka  or  Ghor,  the  ancient  Coelo-Syria,  in 
which  are  the  ruins  of  Balbec. 

The  Lebanon  branch  terminates  at  the  sea  near  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Leontes,  a  few  miles  north  of  the  city  of  old 
Tyre  ;  while  the  Anti-Libanus,  which  begins  at  Mount  Her- 
mon,  9000  feet  high,  runs  west  of  the  Jordan  through  Pales- 
tine, in  a  winding  line,  till  its  last  spurs,  south  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  sink  in  ridges  of  rock  on  the  desert  of  Sinai. 

The  tops  of  ail  these  mountains,  from  Scanderoon  to  Jeru- 
salem, are  covered  with  snow  in  winter;  it  is  permanent  on 
Lebanon  only,  w^hose  absolute  elevation  is  9300  feet.  The 
precipices  are  terrific,  the  springs  abundant,  and  the  spurs 
of  the  mountains  are  studded  with  villages  and  convents; 
there  are  forests  in  the  higher  grounds,  and  lower  dow^n  vine- 
yards and  gardens.  Many  offsets  from  the  Anti-Libanus  end 
precipitously  on  the  coast  between  Tripoli  and  Berout,  among 
which  the  scenery  is  superb. 

The  valleys  and  plains  of  Syria  are  full  of  rich  vegetable 
mould,  particularly  the  plain  of  Damascus,  which  is  bril- 
liantly verdant,  though  surrounded  by  deserts,  the  barren 
uniformity  of  which  is  relieved  on  the  east  by  the  broken 
columns  and  ruined  temples  of  Palmyra  and  Tadmore.  The 
Assyrian  wilderness,  however,  is  not  everywhere  absolutely 
barren.  In  the  spring-time  it  is  covered  with  a  thin  but 
vivid  verdure,  mixed  with  fragrant  aromatic  herbs,  of  very 
short  duration.  When  these  are  burnt  up,  the  unbounded 
plains  resume  their  wonted  dreariness.  The  country,  high 
and  low,  becomes  more  barren  towards  the  Holy  Land,  yet 
even  here  some  of  the  mountains — as  Carmel,  Bashan,  and 
Tabor — are  luxuriantly  wooded,  and  many  of  the  valleys  are 
fertile,  especially  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  which  has  the  ap- 
pearance of  pleasure-grounds,  with  groves  of  wood  and  aro- 
matic plants,  but  almost  in  a  state  of  nature.  One  side  of  the 
Lake  of  Galilee  is  savage  ;  on  the  other  there  are  gentle  hills 
and  wild  romantic  vales,  adorned  with  palm-trees,  olives,  and 
sycamores, — a  scene  of  calm  solitude  and  pastoral  beauty. 
Jerusalem  stands  on  a  declivity  encompassed  by  severe  stony 
mountains,  w^ild  and  desolate.  The  greater  part  of  Syria  is 
a  desert  compared   with  its  ancient  state.     Mussulman  rule 


80  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

has  blighteiJ  this  fair  region,  once  flowing  with   milk  and 
honey, — the  land  of  promise. 

Farther  south  desolation  increases  ;  the  valleys  become 
narrower,  the  hills  more  denuded  and  rugged,  till  south  of 
the  Dead  Sea  their  dreary  aspect  announces  the  approach  to 
the  desert. 

The  valley  of  the  Jordan  affords  the  most  remarkable  in- 
stance known  of  the  depression  of  the  land  below  the  general 
surface  of  the  globe.  This  hollow,  which  extends  from  the 
Gulf  of  Accabah  on  the  Red  Sea  to  the  bifurcation  of  Leba- 
non, is  625  feet  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean  at  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  and  the  acrid  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea  have  a 
depression  of  1230  feet.  The  lowness  of  the  valley  had  been 
observed  by  the  Romans,  who  gave  it  the  descriptive  name 
of  Ccelo-Syria,  "  Hollow  Syria."  It  is  absolutely  walled  in 
by  mountains  between  the  Dead  Sea  and  Lebanon,  where  it 
is  from  10  to  15  miles  wide. 

A  shrinking  of  the  strata  must  have  taken  place  along  this 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean  from  a  sudden  change  of  tempe- 
rature, or  perhaps  in  consequence  of  some  of  the  internal 
props  giving  way,  for  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  is  not  the  only 
instance  of  a  dip  of  the  soil  below  the  sea-level ;  the  small 
bitter  lakes  on  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  are  cavities  of  the  same 
kind,  as  well  as  the  Natron  lakes  on  the  Libyan  desert  vvest 
from  the  delta  of  the  Nile. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

AFRICA  : — TABLE-LAND CAPE    OF    GOOD    HOPE    AND    EASTERN 

COAST WESTERN     COAST ABYSSINIA SENEGAMBIA LOW 

LANDS    AND    DESERTS. 

The  continent  of  Africa  is  5000  miles  long  from  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  to  its  northern  extremity,  and  as  much  be- 
tw^een  Cape  Guardafui,  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  Cape  Verde, 
on  the  Atlantic  ;  but,  from  the  irregularity  of  its  figure,  it  has 
an  area  of  only  12,000,000  square  miles.  It  is  divided  in 
two  by  the  equator,  consequently  the  greater  part  of  it  lies 
under  a  tropical  sun.     The  high  and  low  lands  of  this  por- 


CAPE    OF    GOOD    HOPE.  81 

tion  of  the  old  continent  are  so  distinctly  separated  by  the 
Mountains  of  the  Moon,  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  moun- 
tainous territory  of  the  Atlas,  and  the  small  table-land  of 
Barca,  it  may  be  said  to  consist  of  two  parts  only,  a  high 
country  and  a  low. 

An  extensive,  though  not  very  elevated  table-land,  occu- 
pies all  southern  Africa,  and  even  reaches  to  six  or  seven  de- 
grees north  of  the  equator.  On  three  sides  it  shelves  down 
in  tiers  of  narrow  parallel  terraces  to  the  ocean,  separated 
by  mountain-chains  which  rise  in  height  as  they  recede  from 
the  coast ;  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  structure 
of  the  northern  declivity  is  similar  though  its  extremities  only 
are  known — namely,  Abyssinia  on  the  east,  and  the  high 
land  of  Senegambia  on  the  west ;  both  of  which  project  far- 
ther to  the  north  than  the  central  part. 

The  borders  of  the  table-land  are  very  little  known  to 
Europeans,  and  still  less  its  surface,  which  no  white  man 
has  crossed  north  of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn.  A  compara- 
tively small  part,  north  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  has 
been  explored  by  European  travellers.  Mr.  Truter  and  Mr. 
Somerville  were  the  first  white  men  whom  the  inhabitants  of 
Litakoo  had  seen.  Of  an  expedition  that  followed  their 
track,  a  few  years  after,  no  one  returned. 

North  of  the  Cape  the  land  rises  to  6000  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  the  Orange  River,  with  its  tributaries,  maybe  more 
aptly  said  to  drain  than  to  irrigate  the  arid  country  through 
which  they  flow  ;  many  of  the  tributaries,  indeed,  are  only 
the  channels  through  which  the  torrents,  from  the  periodical 
rains,  are  carried  to  the  Orange  River,  and  are  destitute  of 
water  many  months  in  the  year.  The  "  Dry  River,"  the 
name  of  one  of  these  periodical  streams,  is  in  that  country 
no  misnomer.  Their  margins  are  adorned  with  mimosas, 
and  the  sandy  plains  have  furnished  treasures  to  the  botanist. 

Dr.  Smith  crossed  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  in  a  journey 
from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  the  country  had  still 
the  same  arid  character.  North  from  that  there  is  a  great 
tract  unexplored.  In  1802  two  native  travelling  merchants 
crossed  the  continent,  which  is  1590  miles  wide,  from 
Loanda,  on  the  Atlantic,  to  Zambeze,  on  the  Mozambique 
Channel.  They  found  various  mercantile  nations  consider- 
ably advanced  in  civilization,  who  raise  abundance  of  maize 
and  millet,  though  the  greater  part  of  the  country  is  in  a  state 


82  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

of  nature.  Ridges  of  low  hills,  yielding  copper,  the  staple 
commodity  of  this  country,  run  from  S.E.  to  N.W.  to  the 
west  of  the  dominions  of  the  Cambeze,a  country  full  of  rivers, 
morasses,  and  extensive  salt-marshes,  which  supply  this  part 
of  the  continent  with  salt.  The  travellers  crossed  102  rivers, 
most  of  them  fordable  ;  but  the  leading  feature  of  this 
country  is  Lake  N'yassi,  of  great  but  unknown  length, 
though  comparatively  narrow.  It  begins  200  miles  north 
from  the  town  of  Tete,  on  the  Zambeze,  and  extends  from 
S.E.  to  N.W.,  flanked  on  the  east  by  a  range  of  mountains 
of  the  same  name,  running  in  the  same  direction,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  350  miles  from  the  Mozambique  Channel.  This  is 
all  we  know  of  the  table-land  of  south  Africa.  It  is  evi- 
dent, however,  that  there  can  be  no  very  high  mountains 
covered  with  perpetual  snow  on  the  table-land,  for,  if  there 
were,  southern  Africa  would  not  be  destitute  of  great  rivers  ; 
nevertheless,  the  height  of  the  Komri,  or  Mountains  of  the 
Moon,  on  its  northern  edge,  must  be  considerable,  to  supply 
the  perennial  sources  of  the  Nile,  the  Senegal,  and  the  Niger. 

The  edges  of  the  table-land  are  better  known.  At  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  the  African  continent  is  about  700 
miles  broad,  and  ends  in  three  narrow  parallel  ridges  of 
mountains,  the  last  of  which  is  the  highest  and  abuts  on  the 
table-land.  All  are  cleft  by  precipitous  deep  ravines,  through 
which  winter  torrents  flow  to  the  ocean.  The  longitudinal 
valleys,  or  karoos,  that  separate  them  are  tiers,  or  steps,  by 
which  the  plateau  dips  to  the  maritime  plains.  The  descent 
is  rapid,  as  both  these  plains  and  the  mountain-ranges  are 
very  narrow.  On  the  western  side  the  mountains  form  a 
high  group,  and  end  in  steep  promontories  on  the  coast, 
where  Table  Mountain,  at  Cape  Town,  3582  feet  high,  forms 
a  conspicuous  landmark  to  mariners. 

Granite,  which  is  the  base  of  southern  Africa,  rises  to  a 
considerable  height  in  many  places,  and  is  generally  sur- 
mounted by  vast  horizontal  beds  of  sandstone,  which  give 
that  character  of  flatness  peculiar  to  the  summits  of  many  of 
the  Cape  mountains. 

The  karoos,  or  longitudinal  valleys,  are  arid  deserts  in 
the  dry  season,  but  soon  after  the  rains  they  are  covered 
with  verdure  and  a  splendid  flora.  The  maritime  plains 
partake  of  the  same  temporary  aridity,  though  a  large  portion 
is  rich  in  cereal  productions,  vineyards,  and  pasture. 


WESTERN    COAST    OF    AFRICA.  83 

The  most  inland  of  the  parallel  ranges,  about  the  20th 
meridian,  is  10,000  feet  high,  and,  though  it  sinks  to  some 
groups  of  hills  at  its  eastern  end,  it  rises  again,  about  the 
27th  meridian,  in  a  truly  Alpine  and  continuous  chain — the 
Quotlamba  Mountains,  which  follow  the  northerly  direction 
of  Natal,  and  are  continued  in  the  Lupata  range  of  hills,  80 
miles  inland,  through  Zanguebar. 

At  Natal  the  coast  is  grassy,  with  clumps  of  trees,  like  an 
English  park.  The  Zambeze,  and  other  streams  from  the 
table-land,  refresh  the  plains  on  the  Mozambique  Channel 
and  Zanguebar,  where,  though  some  parts  are  marshy  and 
covered  with  mangroves,  groves  of  palm-trees  adorn  the 
plains,  which  yield  prodigious  quantities  of  grain,  and  noble 
forests  cover  the  mountains  ;  but  from  4°  N.  lat.  to  Cape 
Guardafui  is  a  continued  desert.  There  is  also  a  barren 
tract  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Lupata  chain,  where  gold 
is  found  in  masses  and  grains  on  the  surface  and  in  the 
water-courses  which  tempted  the  Portuguese  to  make  settle- 
ments on  these  unwholesome  coasts. 

The  island  of  Madagascar,  with  its  magnificent  range  of 
mountains,  12,000  feet  high,  full  of  tremendous  precipices, 
and  covered  with  primeval  forests,  is  parallel  to  the  African 
coast,  and  only  separated  from  it  by  the  Mozambique 
Channel  ;  so  it  may  be  presumed  that  it  rose  from  the  deep 
at  the  same  time  as  the  Lupata  chain. 

The  contrast  between  the  eastern  and  western  coasts  of 
South  Africa  is  very  great.  The  escarped  bold  mountains 
round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  its  rocky  coast,  which 
extends  a  short  way  along  the  Atlantic  to  the  north,  are 
succeeded  by  ranges  of  sandstone  of  small  elevation,  which 
separate  the  internal  sandy  desert  from  the  equally  parched 
sandy  shore.  The  terraced  dip  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  for 
900  miles  between  the  Orange  River  and  Cape  Negro,  has 
not  a  drop  of  fresh  water. 

At  Cape  Negro  ranges  of  mountains,  separated  by  long 
level  tracts,  begin,  and  make  a  semicircular  bend  into  the 
interior,  leaving  plains  along  the  coast  140  miles  hroad. 
In  Benguela  these  plains  are  healthy  and  cultivated  ;  farther 
north  there  are  monotonous  grassy  savannahs,  and  forests  of 
gigantic  trees.  The  ground  in  many  places,  saturated  with 
water,  bears  a  tangled  crop  of  mangroves  and  tall  reeds ; 
which  even  cover  the  shoals  along  that  flat  coast ;  hot  pes- 


84  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

tilential    vapours  hang   over   them,    never   dissipated  by  a 
breeze. 

The  country  of  the  Calbongos  is  the  highest  land  on  the 
coast,  where  a  magnificent  group  of  mountains,  13,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  covered  ahnost  to  their  tops  with  large  timber, 
lie  not  far  inland.  The  low  plains  of  Bafra  and  Benin,  w^est 
of  them,  but  especiall}'  the  delta  of  the  Niger,  consist  en- 
tirely of  swamps  loaded  with  rank  vegetation.  The  angel 
of  Death,  brooding  over  these  regions  in  noisome  exhala- 
tions, guards  the  interior  of  that  country  from  the  aggres- 
sions of  the  European,  and  has  hitherto  baffled  his  attempts 
to  form  settlements  on  the  banks  of  this  magnificent  river. 

Many  portions  of  North  Guinea  are  so  fertile  that  they 
might  vie  with  the  valley  of  the  Nile  in  cereal  riches,  besides 
various  other  productions  ;  and  though  the  temperature  is 
very  high,  the  climate  is  not  very  unhealthy. 

No  European  has  yet  seen  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon, 
which  are  said  to  cross  the  continent  along  the  northern  edge 
of  the  great  plateau,  betw^een  two  projections  or  promontories 
of  Abyssinia  and  Senegarabia.  This  chain  divides  the  semi- 
civilized  states  t)f  Soudan,  Bornou,  and  Begharmi  from  the 
barbarous  nations  on  the  table-land.  It  extends  south  of 
Abyssinia  at  one  end,  at  the  other  it  joins  the  high  land  of 
Senegambia,  and  is  continued  in  the  Kong  range,  which 
runs  1200  miles  behind  Dahomy  and  the  Gold  Coast,  and 
ends  in  the  promontory  of  Sierra  Leone. 

The  vast  Alpine  promontory  of  Abyssinia,  or  Ethiopia, 
700  miles  wide,  projects  from  the  table-land  for  300  miles 
into  the  low  lands  of  North  Africa.  It  dips  in  parallel 
ridges  and  longitudinal  valleys  to  the  Red  Sea  on  the  east, 
to  a  low  swampy  region  on  the  north,  and  to  the  plains  of 
Senaar  and  Kardofan  on  the  west.  The  whole  country  is  a 
mass  of  rugged  mountains,  torn  by  ravines,  with  intervening 
cultivated  valleys  and  verdant  plains.  The  plain  of  Dembea, 
the  summit  of  the  plateau,  8000  feet  above  the  sea,  the 
granary  of  the  country,  also  abounds  in  pasture,  and  enjoys 
a  perpetual  spring.  Dr.  Beke,  who  has  travelled  to  the  south 
of  Abyssinia  to  within  six  degrees  of  the  equator,  found  the 
same  natural  characters. 

The  mountains  of  Abyssinia,  and  those  to  the  west  of  it, 
are  the  watershed  whence  the  streams  that  form  the  Nile 
flow  to  the  north,  while  the  Quilimane,  which  rises  also  in 


ABYSSINIA SENEGAMBIA.  85 

these   mountains,   runs   to  the  Indian    Ocean,  and    all  the 
streams  that  rise  east  of  Bornou  run  into  Lake  Tchad. 

The  geological  structure  of  Abyssinia  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  base  being  granite,  and  the 
superstructure  sandstone,  occasionally  with  limestone,  schist, 
and  breccia.  The  granite  comes  to  the  surface  in  the  lower 
parts  of  Abyssinia,  but  sandstone  predominates  in  the  upper 
parts,  and  assumes  a  tabular  form,  often  lying  on  the  tops  of 
the  mountains  in  enormous  flat  masses,  only  accessible  by 
steps  cut  in  the  rock,  or  by  ladders.  Such  insulated  spots 
are  used  as  state  prisons.  Large  tracts  are  of  ancient  volcanic 
rocks,  especially  in  Shoa. 

Senegambia,  the  appendage  to  the  western  extremity  of 
the  table-land,  also  projects  far  into  the  low  lands,  and  is  the 
watershed  whence  the  streams  flow  on  one  side  to  the  plains 
of  Soudan,  where  they  join  the  Joliba,  or  Niger  ;  and  from 
the  other  side,  the  Gambia,  Senegal,  and  other  rivers,  run 
into  the  Atlantic  over  a  rich  cultivated  plain,  but  unhealthy, 
from  the  rankness  of  the  vegetation. 

The  moisture  that  descends  from  the  northern  edge  of  the 
table-land  of  South  Africa,  under  the  fiery  radiance  of  a  tro- 
pical sun,  fertilizes  a  tract  of  country  stretching  from  sea  to 
sea  across  the  continent,  the  commencement  of  the  African 
low  lands.  A  great  part  of  this  region,  which  contains  many 
kingdoms  and  commercial  cities,  is  a  very  productive  coun- 
try. The  abundance  of  water,  the  industry  of  the  natives  in 
irrigating  the  ground,  the  periodical  rains,  and  the  tropical 
heat,  leave  the  soil  no  repose.  Agriculture  is  in  a  rude  state, 
but  nature  is  so  bountiful  that  rice  and  millet  are  raised  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  supply  the  wants  of  a  numerous  popula- 
tion. Gold  is  found  in  the  river-courses,  and  there  are 
elephants  in  the  forests;  but  man  is  the  staple  of  their  com- 
merce,— a  disgrace  to  the  savage  who  sells  his  fellow-crea- 
ture, but  a  far  greater  disgrace  to  the  more  savage  purchaser, 
who  dares  to  assume  the  sacred  name  of  Christian. 

This  long  belt  of  never-failing  vitality,  which  has  its  large 
lakes,  poisonous  swamps,  deep  forests  of  gigantic  trees,  and 
vast  solitudes  in  which  no  white  man  ever  trode,  is  of  small 
width  compared  with  its  length.  In  receding  from  the  moun- 
tains the  moisture  becomes  less,  and  the  soil  gradually  worse, 
sufficing  only  to  produce  grass  for  the  flocks  of  the  wander- 
ing Beduin.  At  last  a  hideous  barren  waste  begins,  which 
8 


86  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

extends  northwards  800  miles  in  unvaried  desolation  to  the 
grassy  steppes  at  the  foot  of  the  Atlas;  and,  for  1000  miles 
between  the  x\tlantic  and  the  Red  Sea,  the  nakedness  of  this 
blighted  land  is  unbroken  but  by  the  valley  of  the  Nile  and 
a  few  oases. 

In  the  west  about  760,000  square  miles—  an  area  equal  to 
that  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea — is  covered  by  the  trackless 
sands  of  the  Sahara  Desert,  w^hich  is  even  prolonged  for  miles 
into  the  Atlantic  in  the  form  of  sandbanks.  This  desert  is 
alternately  scorched  by  heat  and  pinched  by  cold.  The 
wind  blows  from  the  east  nine  months  in  the  year,  and  at 
the  equinoxes  it  rushes  in  a  hurricane,  driving  the  sand  in 
clouds  before  it,  producing  the  darkness  of  night  at  midday, 
and  overwhelming  caravans  of  men  and  animals  in  common 
destruction.  Then  the  sand  is  heaped  up  in  waves  ever 
varying  w^ith  the  blast;  even  the  atmosphere  is  of  sand. 
The  desolation  of  this  dreary  waste,  boundless  to  the  eye  as 
the  ocean,  is  terrific  and  sublime;  the  dry,  heated  air  is  like 
a  red  vapour,  the  setting  sun  seems  to  be  a  volcanic  fire, 
and,  at  times,  the  burning  wind  of  the  desert  is  the  blast  of 
death.  There  are  many  salt-lakes  to  the  north,  and  even  the 
springs  are  of  brine  ;  thick  incrustations  of  dazzling  salt  cover 
the  ground,  and  the  particles,  carried  aloft  by  whirlwinds, 
flash  in  the  sun  like  diamonds. 

Sand  is  not  the  only  character  of  the  desert;  tracts  of 
gravel  and  low  bare  rocks  occur  at  times,  not  less  barren  and 
dreary;  but,  on  the  eastern  and  northern  borders  of  the 
Sahara,  fresh  water  rises  near  the  surface,  and  produces  an 
occasional  oasis  where  barrenness  and  vitality  meet.  The 
oases  are  generally  depressed  below  the  level  of  the  desert, 
with  an  arenaceous  or  calcareous  border  inclosing  their  eme- 
rald verdure  like  a  frame.  The  smaller  oases  produce  her- 
bage, ferns,  acacias,  and  some  shrubs  ;  forests  of  date-palms 
grow  in  the  larger,  which  are  the  re^'ort  of  lions,  panthers, 
gazelles,  reptiles,  and  a  variety  of  birds. 

In  the  Nubian  and  Libyan  deserts,  to  the  east  of  the  Sahara, 
the  continent  shelves  down  towards  the  Mediterranean  in  a 
series  of  steps,  consisting  of  vast  level  sandy  or  gravelly 
deserts,  lying  east  and  west,  separated  by  low  rocky  ridges. 
This  shelving  country,  which  is  only  540  feet  above  the  sea 
at  the  distance  of  750  miles  inland,  is  cut  transversely  by  the 
Nile,  and  by  a  deep  furrow  parallel  to  it,  in  which  there  is 


AFRICAN    DESERTS.  87 

a  long  line  of  oases.  This  furrow,  the  Nile,  and  the  Red 
Sea,  nearly  parallel  to  both,  are  flanked  by  rocky  eminences 
which  go  north  from  the  table-land. 

On  the  interminable  sands  and  rocks  of  these  deserts  no 
animal,  no  insect,  breaks  the  dread  silence;  not  a  tree  nor  a 
shrub  is  to  be  seen  in  this  land  without  a  shadow.  In  the 
glare  of  noon  the  air  quivers  with  the  heat  reflected  from  the 
red  sand,  and  in  the  night  it  is  chilled  under  a  clear  sky 
sparkling  with  its  host  of  stars.  Strangely,  but  beautifully, 
contrasted  with  these  scorched  solitudes,  is  the  narrow  valley 
of  the  Nile,  threading  the  desert  for  a  thousand  miles  in 
emerald  green,  with  its  blue  waters  foaming  in  rapids  among 
wild  rocks,  or  quietly  spreading  in  a  calm  stream  amidst  fields 
of  corn,  and  the  august  monuments  of  past  ages. 

At  the  distance  of  a  few  days' journey  west  from  the  Nile 
over  a  hideous  flinty  plain,  lies  the  furrow  already  mentioned, 
tending  to  the  north,  and  containing  the  oases  of  Darfour, 
Selime,  the  Great  and  Little  Oases,  and  the  parallel  valleys 
of  the  Natran  lakes,  and  Bahr-Belama,  or  the  "Dry  River." 
The  Great  Oasis,  or  Oasis  of  Thebes,  is  125  miles  long,  and 
4  or  5  broad  ;  the  Lesser  Oasis,  separated  from  it  by  40 
miles  of  desert,  is  of  the  same  form.  Both  are  rich  in  ver- 
dure and  cultivation,  with  villages  amid  palm-groves  and 
fruit-trees,  mixed  with  the  ruins  of  remote  antiquity ;  offer- 
ing scenes  of  peaceful  and  soft  beauty  contrasted  with  the 
surrounding  gloom.  The  Natran  lakes  are  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  valley  of  Nitrea,  35  miles  west  of  the  Nile;  the 
southern  part  is  a  beautiful  quiet  spot,  that  became  the  re- 
treat of  Christian  monks  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century, 
and  at  one  time  contained  360  convents,  of  which  only  four 
remain;  from  these  some  very  valuable  manuscripts  of  old 
date  have  recently  been  obtained.  ^ 

Another  line  of  oases  runs  along  the  latitude  of  Cairo,  with 
fresh-water  lakes,  consequently  no  less  fertile  than  the  pre- 
ceding. The  ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon  are  in 
one  of  them. 

Hundreds  of  miles  on  the  northern  edge  of  the  desert,  from 
the  Atlantic  along  the  southern  foot  of  the  Atlas  to  the  Great 
Syrte,  are  pasture-lands  without  a  tree,  an  ocean  of  verdure. 
At  the  Great  Syrte  the  Sahara  comes  to  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and,  indeed,  for  1100  miles  between  the  ter- 
mination of  the  Atlas  and  the  little  table-land  of  Barca,  the 


88  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

ground  is  so  unprofitable  that  the  population  only  amounts 
to  about  30,000,  and  these  are  mostly  wandering  tribes  who 
feed  their  flocks  on  the  grassy  steppes.  Magnificent  coun- 
tries lie  along  the  Mediterranean  coast,  north  of  the  Atlas, 
susceptible  of  cultivation.  History,  and  the  ruins  of  many 
fifreat  cities,  attest  their  former  splendour.  Even  now  there 
are  many  populous  commercial  cities,  and  much  grain  is 
raised,  though  a  great  part  of  these  valuable  kingdoms  is 
badly  cultivated,  or  not  cultivated  at  all. 

The  base  of  the  sandy  parts  of  North  Africa  is  stiff  clay. 
In  Lower  Nubia,  between  the  parallels  of  Assouan  and  Esneh, 
red  and  white  granite  prevail,  followed  by  argillaceous  sand- 
stone. Middle  Egypt  is  calcareous,  and  lower  down  the 
Nile  sand  and  alluvium  cover  the  surface. 

The  prodigious  extent  of  desert  is  one  of  the  most  extraor- 
dinary circumstances  in  the  structure  of  the  old  continent. 
A  zone  of  almost  irretrievable  desolation  prevails  from  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  across  Africa  and  through  Central  Asia,  al- 
most to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  through  at  least  120  degrees  of 
longitude.  There  are  also  many  large  districts  of  the  same 
sterile  nature  in  Europe  ;  and  if  to  these  sandy  plains  the  de- 
serts of  Siberia  be  added,  together  with  all  the  barren  and 
rocky  mountain  tracts,  the  unproductive  land  in  the  Old 
World  is  prodigious.  The  quantity  of  salt  on  the  sandy 
plains  is  enormous,  and  proves  that  they  have  been  part  of 
the  bed  of  the  ocean,  or  of  inland  seas,  at  no  very  remote 
geological  period.  The  low  lands  round  the  Black  Sea  and 
Caspian,  and  the  Lake  of  Aral,  seem  to  have  been  the  most 
recently  reclaimed,  from  the  great  proportion  of  shells  in 
them  identical  with  those  now  existing  in  these  seas.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  Sahara  Desert,  where  salt  and  re- 
cent shells  are  plentiful. 


CHAPTER  VHL 


AMERICAN    CONTINENT THE  MOUNTAINS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 

THE  ANDES THE  MOUNTAINS  OF  THE  PARIMA  AND  BRAZIL. 

Some  thinner  portion  of  the  crust  of  the  globe  under  the  meri- 
dians that  traverse  the  continent  of  America  from  Cape  Horn 


AMERICAN    CONTINENT.  89 

to  the  Arctic  Ocean  must  have  yielded  to  the  expansive  forces 
of  the  subterranean  fires,  or  been  rent  by  the  contraction  of  the 
strata  in  cooling.     Through  this  the  Andes  had  arisen,  pro- 
ducing the  greatest  influence  on  the  form  of  the  continent, 
and   the   peculiar  simplicity  that   prevails   in   its  principal 
mountain  systems,  which,  with  very  few  exceptions,  have  a 
general   tendency  from  north   to  south.     The   continent  is 
9000  miles  long,  and,  its  form  being  two  great  peninsulas 
joined  by  a  long  narrow  isthmus,  it  is  divided  by  nature  into 
the  three  parts  of  South,  Central,  and  North  America  ;  yet 
these  three  are  connected  by  the  mighty  chain  of  the  Andes, 
but  little  inferior  in  height  to  the  Himalaya,  running  along 
the  coast  of  the  Pacific  from  within  the  Arctic  nearly  to  the 
Antarctic   circle.     In  this  course  every  variety  of  climate 
is  to  be  met  with,  from  the  rigour  of  polar  congelation  to  the 
scorching  heat  of  the  torrid  zone  ;   while  the  mountains  are 
so  high  that  the  same  extremes  of  heat   and  cold   may  be" 
experienced  in  the  journey  of  a  few  hours  from  the  burning 
plains  of  Peru  to  the  snow-clad  peaks  above.     In  this  long 
chain  there  are  three  distinct  varieties  of  character,  nearly, 
though    not    entirely,    corresponding    to   the    three   natural 
divisions  of  the  continent.     The  Andes  of  South  America 
differ  materially  from  those  of  Central  America  and  Mexico, 
while  both  are  dissimilar  to  the  Andes  of  North   America, 
generally  known  as  the  Chippewayan  or  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  greatest  length  of  South  America  from  Cape  Horn  to 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  is  about   4550   miles.     It  is  very 
narrow   at   its   southern   extremity,  but  increases   in  width 
northward  to  the  latitude  of  Cape  Roque  on  the   Atlantic, 
between  which   and   Cape  Blanco  on  the  Pacific   it  attains 
its  greatest  breadth  of  nearly  2446    miles.     It   consists  of 
three  mountain  systems,  separated  by  the  basins  of  three  of 
the  greatest  rivers  in  the  world.     The  Andes  run  along  the 
western  coast  from  Cape  Horn  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  in 
a  single  chain  of  small  width  but  majestic  height,  dipping 
rapidly  to  the  narrow  maritime  plains  of  the  Pacific,  but 
descending  on  the  east  in  high  valleys  and  occasional  ofTsets 
to  plains  of  vast  extent,  whose  dead  level  is  for  hundreds  of 
miles  as  unbroken  as  that  of  the  ocean  by  w^hich  they  are 
bounded.     Nevertheless    two    detached    mountain    systems 
rise  on  these  plains,  one  in  Brazil  between  the  Rio   de  la 
Plata  and  the  river  of  the  Amazons  ;  the  other  is  that  of 
8* 


90  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Parima  and  Guiana,  lying  between  the  river  of  the  Amazons 
and  the  Orinoco. 

The  great  chain  of  the  Andes  first  raises  its   crest  above 
the  waves  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean  in  the  majestic  dark  mass 
of  Cape  Horn,  the  southernmost  point  of  the  archipelago  of 
Terra  del  Fuego.     This  group  of  mountainous  islands,  equal 
in  size  to  Britain,  is  cut  ot!"from  the  main  land  by  the  Strait 
of  Magellan.     The  islands  are  penetrated  in  every  direction 
by  bays  and   narrow  inlets  of  the  sea,  or   fiords,  ending  in 
glaciers  fed  by  the  snow^  on  the  summits  of  mountains  6000 
feet  high.     Peat-mosses  cover  the  higher  declivities  of  these 
mountains,  and  their  iianks  are  beset  with  densely  entangled 
forests   of  brown   beech,   which    never    loose    their  dusky 
leaves,  producing  altogether  a  savage  dismal  scene.     The 
mountains  which  occupy  the  western  side  of  this  cluster  of 
islands  sink  down  to  wide  level  plains  to  the  east,  like  the 
•continent  itself,  of  which  the  archipelago  is  but  the  southern 
extremity. 

The  Pacific  comes  to  the  very  base  of  the  Patagonian 
Andes  for  about  1000  miles,  from  Cape  Horn  to  the  40th 
parallel  of  south  latitude.  The  whole  coast  is  lined  by  a 
succession  of  archipelagos  and  islands,  separated  from  the 
iron-bound  shores  by  narrow  arms  of  the  sea,  w^hich,  in  the 
more  southern  part,  are  in  fact  profound  longitudinal  valleys 
of  the  Andes  filled  by  the  ocean,  so  that  the  chain  of  islands 
running  parallel  to  the  axes  of  the  mountains  is  but  the  tops 
of  an  exterior  range  rising  above  the  sea. 

The  coast  itself  for  650  miles  is  begirt  by  walls  of  rock, 
which  sink  into  an  unfathomable  depth,  torn  by  long  crevices 
or  fiords,  similar  to  those  on  the  Norwegian  shore,  ending 
in  tremendous  glaciers,  whose  masses,  falling  with  a  crash 
like  thunder,  drive  the  sea  in  sweeping  breakers  through 
these  chasms.  The  islands  and  the  main  land  are  thickly 
clothed  with  forests,  which  are  of  a  less  sombre  aspect  as 
the  latitude  decreases. 

South  of  the  archipelago  of  Chiloe  there  are  few  spots 
susceptible  of  cultivation,  and  none  fit  for  the  permanent 
habitation  of  man  ;  but  Chiloe  itself,  the  most  southerly 
part  of  the  globe  that  is  inhabited,  is  fertile.  There  are 
four  magnificent  volcanoes  in  the  Andes  opposite  to  these 
islands.  In  southern  Chili  the  Andes  retire  a  little  from  the 
sea,  leaving  plains  traversed  by  ranges  of  hills  2000  or  3000 


THE    ANDES.  91 

feet  high,  running  parallel  to  the  coast,  cut  by  valleys  and 
separated  by  flat  basins,  the  beds  of  ancient  lakes,  now 
inhabited. 

The  Cordillera  itself  runs  behind  in  a  single  chain,  about 
20  miles  broad,  with  12,000  feet  of  mean  elevation.  The 
mountain-tops  maintain  a  horizontal  line  parallel  to  that  of 
perpetual  snow,  surmounted  at  long  intervals  by  groups  of 
points,  or  a  solitary  volcanic  cone,  in  delicate  relief  on  the 
clear  blue  sky.  Of  these,  Descabezado,  the  "  Beheaded," 
rises  12,102  feet  above  the  sea,  and  behind  Valparaiso,  in 
the  centre  of  a  knot  of  mountains,  the  magnificent  vol- 
cano of  Aconcagua  has  an  absolute  height  of  23,000  feet. 
All  the  higher  ranges  of  the  Chilian  Andes  are  uninhabitable  ; 
there  are  very  few  valleys  which  learl  to  the  central  range, 
and  these  are  mostly  in  southern  Chili  ;  in  other  places  the 
chain  is  utterly  impassable  to  beasts  of  burthen.  The  flat 
parts  of  these  mountains  are  often  volcanic,  and  the  preci- 
pices are  frightful.  The  descent  is  so  abrupt  on  both  sides, 
that  northern  Chili  may  be  esteemed  a  declivity  of  the 
Cordillera. 

About  the  latitude  of  Conception  the  dense  forests  of 
semi-tropical  vegetation  cease  with  the  humid  equable 
climate ;  and  as  no  rain  falls  in  central  Chili  for  nine 
months  in  the  year,  the  brown,  purple,  and  tile-red  hills  and 
mountains  are  only  dotted  here  and  there  with  low  trees  and 
bushes  ;  very  soon,  however,  after  the  heavy  showers  have 
moistened  the  cracked  ground,  it  is  covered  with  a  beautiful 
but  transient  flora.  In  some  valleys  it  is  more  permanent 
and  of  a  tropical  character,  mixed  with  Alpine  plants.  In 
southern  Chili  rain  falls  only  once  in  two  or  three  years,  the 
consequence  of  which  is  sterility  on  the  western  precipitous 
and  unbroken  descent  of  the  Andes  ;  but  on  the  east  various 
secondary  branches  leave  the  central  Cordillera,  which 
extend  300  or  400  miles  into  the  plains,  wooded  to  a  great 
height. 

The  chain  takes  the  name  of  the  Peruvian  Andes  about 
the  24th  degree  of  south  latitude,  and  is  separated  from  the 
Pacific  for  1250  miles  by  a  sandy  desert,  seldom  above  60 
miles  broad,  on  which  a  drop  of  rain  never  falls,  where  bare 
rocks  pierce  through  the  moving  sand,  and  which  has  a 
mine  of  rock-salt,  a  character  of  deserts  generally.  The 
width  of  the   coast  is   nearly  the  same  to  the  Isthmus  of 


92  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Panama,  but  damp  luxuriant  forests,  full  of  orchideas, 
begin  about  the  latitude  of  Payta,  and  continue  northwards. 
From  its  southern  extremity  to  the  Nevada  of  Chorolque, 
in  21°  30'  S.  lat.,  the  Andes  are  merely  a  grand  range  of 
mountains,  but  north  of  that  the  chain  becomes  a  very  ele- 
vated narrow  table-land,  or  longitudinal  Alpine  valley,  in 
the  direction  of  the  coast,  bounded  on  each  side  by  a 
parallel  row  of  high  mountains,  rising  much  above  the  table- 
land. These  parallel  Cordilleras  are  united  at  various  points 
by  enormous  transverse  groups  or  mountain-knots,  or  by 
single  ranges  crossing  between  them  like  dykes,  a  structure 
that  prevails  to  Pasto  in  1°  13'  6"  ■.  lat.  The  descent  to 
the  Pacific  is  very  steep,  but  the  dip  is  less  rapid  to  the 
east,  whence  offsets  diverge  to  the  level  plains.  The  most 
remarkable  peculiarity  of  the  Andes  is  the  absence  of  trans- 
verse valleys;  w^ith  the  exception  of  a  few  in  the  Patagonian 
and  south  Chilian  Andes  there  is  not  an  opening  through 
these  mountains  in  the  remainder  of  their  course  to  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama. 

Unlike  the  table-lands  of  Asia  of  the  same  elevation, 
where  cultivation  is  confined  to  the  more  sheltered  spots,  or 
those  still  lower  in  Europe,  which  are  only  fit  for  pasture, 
these  lofty  regions  of  the  Andes  yield  exuberant  crops  of 
every  European  grain,  and  have  many  populous  cities  en- 
joying the  luxuries  of  life,  with  universities,  libraries,  civil 
and  religious  establishments,  at  altitudes  equal  to  that  of 
the  Peak  of  Teneriife,  which  is  12,358  feet  above  the  sea 
level.  Villages  are  placed  and  mines  are  wrought  at  heights 
little  less  than  the  top  of  Mont  Blanc.  This  state  is  not 
limited  to  the  present  times,  since  these  table-lands  were 
made  the  centre  of  civilization  by  a  race  of  mankind  w^hich 
"  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  Incas  and  the  present  inhab- 
itants that  the  Etruscans  bear  to  the  ancient  Romans  and  to 
the  Italians  of  our  own  days." 

The  table-land  of  Desaguadero,  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able of  these,  has  an  absolute  altitude  of  13,000  feet,  and  a 
breadth  varying  from  30  to  60  miles :  it  stretches  500  miles 
along  the  top  of  the  Andes,  betw^een  the  transverse  moun- 
tain-group of  Las  Lipez,  in  20°  S.  lat.,  and  the  enormous 
mountain-knot  of  Vilcanata  and  Cusco,  which,  extending 
from  east  to  west,  shuts  in  the  valley  on  the  north,  occupying 
an  area  three  times  as  large  as  Switzerland,  and  rising  8300 


THE   ANDES.  93 

feet  above  the   surface  of  the  table-land,  from  which  some 
idea   may  be   formed   of  the   gigantic   scale   of  the  Andes. 
This  table-land  or   valley  is   bounded  on   each   side  by  the 
two  grand  chains  of  the  Bolivian  Andes:  that  on  the  west 
is  the  Cordillera  of  the  coast ;  the  range  on  the  east  side  is 
the  Cordillera  Reale.     These  two  rows  of  mountains  lie  so 
near   the   edge   that   the  whole   breadth   of  the  table-land, 
including  both,  is  only  300  miles.     All  the  snowy  peaks  of 
the  Cordilleras  of  the  coast,  varying  from  18,000  to  22,000 
feet   in   absolute   height,  are   either  active   volcanoes  or   of 
volcanic  origin,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  volcano  of 
Uvinas,  they  are  all  situate  upon  the  maritime  declivity  of 
the  table-land,  and  not  more  than  60  miles  from  the  Pacific  ; 
consequently  the  descent  is  very  abrupt.     The  eastern  Cor- 
dillera, which  begins  at  the  metalliferous  mountains  of  Pasco 
and  Potosi,  is  not  more  than  17,000  feet  high  to  the  south, 
and  below  the  level  of  perpetual  snow,  but  its  northern  por- 
tion contains  the  three  peaked  mountains  of  Sorata,  25,000 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent  chains 
in  the  Andes.     The  snowy  part  begins  with  the   gigantic 
mass  of  Illimani,  whose   serrated   ridges,  elongated  in  the 
direction  of  the  axis  of  the  Andes,  rise  24,000  feet  above 
the  ocean.     The  lowest  glacier  on  its  southern  slope  does 
not  come  below  16,500  feet,  and  the  valley  of  Totoral,  a 
mere  gulf  18,000  feet  deep,  in  which  Vesuvius  might  stand, 
comes  between  Illimani   and  the  Nevada  of  Tres  Cruces, 
from  whence  the  Cordillera  Reale  runs  northward  in  a  con- 
tinuous line  of  snow-clad  peaks  to  the   group  of  Vilcanata 
and  Cusco,  which  unites  it  with  the  Cordilleras  of  the  coast. 
The    valley    or    table-land    of    Desaguadero,    occupying 
150,000  square  miles,  has  a  considerable  variety  of  surface  ; 
in  the  south,  throughout  the  mining  district,  it  is  poor  and 
cold.     There  Potosi,  the  highest  city  in  the  world,  stands, 
at  an  absolute  elevation  of  13,350  feet,  on  the  declivity  of 
a  mountain  celebrated  for  its  silver-mines  at   the   height  of 
16,060  feet.     Chiquisaca,  the  capital  of  Bolivia,  containing 
13,000  inhabitants,  lies  to  the  south-east  of  Potosi,  in  the 
midst  of  cultivated  fields.     The  northern  part  of  the  valley 
is   populous,  and   productive   in    wheat,  maize,  and   other 
grain  ;  and  there  is  the  Lake  of  Titicaca,  twenty  times   as 
large  as  the  Lake  of  Geneva.     The  islands   and   shores  of 
this  lake  still  exhibit  ruins  of  gigantic  magnitude,  monuments 


94  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

of  a  people  more  ancient  than  the  Incas.  The  modem  city 
of  La  Paz  d'Ayachuco  with  40,000  inhabitants,  on  its  southern 
border,  stands  in  the  most  sublime  situation  that  can  be  ima- 
gined, having  the  vast  Nevada  of  Illimani  to  the  north,  and 
the  no  less  magnificent  Sorata  to  the  south.  The  two  ranges 
of  the  Bolivian  Andes  in  such  close  approximation,  with 
their  smoking  cones  and  serrated  ridges,  form  one  of  the 
most  august  scenes  in  nature. 

Many  offsets  leave  the  eastern  side  of  the  Cordillera 
Reale,  which  terminate  in  the  great  plain  of  Chiquitos  and 
Paraguay ;  the  most  important  is  the  Sierra  Nevada  de 
Cochobamba,  which  bounds  a  rich  valley  of  the  same  name 
on  the  north,  and,  after  dividing  the  basins  of  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata  from  that  of  the  Amazons  for  200  miles,  ends  near  the 
town  of  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra. 

There  are  fertile  valleys  and  plains  in  the  snow-capped 


ipi 

Sun  still  bear  marks  of  its  former  splendour.  Two  ancient 
Peruvian  roads  lead  from  Cusco  to  Quito,  in  no  respect 
inferior  to  the  old  Roman  roads :  that  over  the  mountain 
plains  is  higher  than  the  Peak  of  Tenerilfe.  North  from 
Cusco  lies  the  plain  of  Bombon,  which  assumes  the  bleak 
and  dismal  character  common  to  the  mining  districts.  It  is 
14,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  only  18  miles  wide  between 
the  Cordilleras  that  bound  its  sides,  and  which  send  their 
streams  into  the  Lake  of  Lauri  or  Laurichoco,  the  source  of 
the  river  of  the  Amazons.  There  are  many  small  lakes  on 
the  table-lands  and  high  valleys  of  the  Andes,  some  even 
within  the  range  of  perpetual  snow.  They  are  very  cold 
and  unfathomably  deep,  often  of  the  purest  sea-green  colour, 
probably  the  craters  of  old  volcanoes. 

The  crest  of  the  Andes  is  split  into  three  rows  of  moun- 
tains running  from  south  to  north  from  the  transverse  group 
of  Pasco  and  Huanuco,  which  shuts  in  the  valley  of  Bombon 
between  the  11th  and  10th  parallels  of  south  latitude:  that 
in  the  centre  separates  the  wide  fertile  valley  of  the  upper 
Maranon  from  the  still  richer  valley  of  Huallago.  The 
western  chain  alone  reaches  the  line  of  perpetual  snow, 
and  no  mountain  north  of  this  for  400  miles  to  Chimborazo 
arrives  at  the  snow-line. 


THE    ANDES. 


95 


North  from  the  group  of  Loxas,  celebrated  for  its  forests 
of  the  cinchona  or  Peruvian  bark  tree,  the  summit  of  the 
Andes  spreads  into  a  narrow  table-land,  which  extends  350 
miles  in  the  direction  of  the  chain,  passing  through  the 
republic  of  the  Equator  to  the  mountain-group  of  Pastos  in 
New  Grenada.  It  is  hemmed  in  on  each  side  by  Cordilleras 
of  gigantic  size,  and  divided  by  the  cross  ridges  of  the 
Paramo  del  Assuay  and  Chisinche  into  three  parts,  namely, 
the  plains  of  Cuenya,  Tassia,  and  Quito,  by  much  the 
greatest.  The  plain  of  Cuenfa  is  uninteresting,  but  the 
plain  of  Tassia  is  very  magnifient  ;  the  huge  dome-shaped 
Chimborazo  rises  in  its  eastern  Cordillera  21,428  feet  above 
the  sea,  yet  not  the  highest  mountain  in  the  Andes  ;  and  in 
the  same  Cordillera  are  the  pyramidal  peaks  of  Illiniza,  the 
wreck  of  an  ancient  volcano.  The  height  of  Illiniza  above 
the  Pacific  and  above  the  table-land  was  measured  by  the 
French  Academicians,  and  from  their  measurement  they 
obtained  the  height  of  Quito,  and  an  approximate  value  of 
the  barometrical  coefficient.  In  the  western  Cordillera  lies 
the  ever-agitated  volcano  of  Sangay,  together  with  Cotopaxi, 
the  most  beautiful  of  volcanoes,  whose  cone  of  dazzling 
white  is  six  times  as  high  as  that  of  the  Peak  of  Teneritfe. 

The  table-land  of  Quito,  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  in 
the  Andes,  is  200  miles  long  and  30  wide,  with  an  absolute 
altitude  of  10,000  feet,  bounded  by  the  most  magnificent 
series  of  volcanoes  and  mountains  in  the  New  World.  A 
peculiar  interest  is  attached  to  two  of  the  many  magnificent 
volcanoes  in  the  parallel  Cordilleras  that  flank  it  on  each 
side.  In  the  eastern  chain  the  beautiful  snow-clad  cone  of 
Cayambe  is  traversed  by  the  equator,  the  most  remarkable 
division  of  the  globe  ;  and  in  the  western  Cordillera  the 
cross  still  stands  on  the  summit  of  Pinchinchn,  15,924  feet 
above  the  Pacific,  which  served  for  a  signal  to  Messieurs 
Bouguer  and  Condamine  in  the  measurement  of  a  degree  of 
the  meridian. 

Some  parts  of  the  plain  of  Quito  to  the  south  are  sterile, 
but  the  soil  generally  is  good,  and  perpetual  spring  clothes 
it  with  exuberant  vegetation.  The  city  of  Quito,  containing 
70,000  inhabitants,  on  the  side  of  Pinchincha,  has  an  abso- 
lute height  of  9000  feet.  The  city  is  well  built  and  hand- 
some ;  the  churches  are  splendid  ;  it  possesses  universities, 
the  comforts  and  luxuries  of  civilized  life,  in  a  situation  of  unri- 


96  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

vailed  grandeur  and  beauty.  Thus  on  the  very  summit  of 
the  Andes  there  is  a  world  by  itself,  with  its  mountains  and 
its  valleys,  its  lakes  and  rivers,  populous  towns  and  culti- 
vated fields.  Many  monuments  of  the  Incas  are  still  found 
in  good  preservation  in  these  plains,  where  the  scenery  is 
magnificent ;  eleven  volcanoes  are  visible  from  one  spot. 
Although  the  Andes  are  inferior  in  height  to  the  Himalaya, 
yet  the  domes  of  trachyte,  the  truncated  cones  of  the  active 
volcanoes,  and  the  serrated  ruins  of  those  that  are  extinct, 
mixed  with  the  bald  features  of  primary  mountains,  give  an 
infinitely  greater  variety  to  the  scene,  while  the  smoke,  and 
very  often  the  iiame,  issuing  from  these  regions  of  perpetual 
snow,  increase  its  sublimity.  Stupendous  as  these  moun- 
tains appear  even  from  the  plains  of  the  table-land,  they  are 
merely  the  inequalities  of  the  tops  of  the  Andes,  the  serrated 
summit  of  that  mighty  chain. 

Between  the  large  group  of  Los  Pastos,  containing  several 
active  volcanoes,  and  the  group  of  Los  Papos  in  the  second 
degree  of  north  latitude,  the   table-land  is  only  6900   feet 
above  the  sea  ;  and   north  of  the  latter  mountain-knot  the 
crest  of  the  Andes  splits  into  three  Cordilleras,  which  meet 
no  more.     The  most  westerly  of  these,  the  continuation  of 
the  great  chain,  divides  the  valley  of  the  river  Cauca  from 
the  Gulf  of  Panama  ;   it   is   only  5000  feet  high,  and  the 
lowest  of  the  three.     Though  but  20  miles  broad,  it  is  so 
steep,  and  so  difilicult  to  pass,  that  travellers  cannot  go  on 
mules,  but  are  carried  on  men's  shoulders  ;  it  is  exceedingly 
rich  in  gold  and  platina.     The  central  branch,  or  Cordil- 
lera of  Quindici,  runs   due  north  between   the  Magdalena 
and  Cauca,  with  a  mean  height  of  10,000  feet,  though  rising 
to  18,314  feet  on  the  Peak  of  Tolima.     The  most  easterly 
of  the  three  Cordilleras,  called  the  Sierra  de  la  Summa  Paz, 
spreads   out   into  the  table-land   of  Sante  Fe   de   Bogota, 
Tunja,  and  others,  which  have  an  elevation  of  about  9000 
feet,  and  its  precipices  border  the  rivers  Orinoco  and  Meta. 
The  tremendous   crevice  of  Icononza  occurs   in   the   path 
leading  from  the  city  of  Sante  Fe  de  Bogota  to  the  banks  of 
the  Magdalena.     It  probably  was  formed  by  an  earthquake, 
and  is  like   an   empty  mineral  vein,  across  which  are   two 
natural  bridges ;  the  lowest  is  composed  of  stones  that  have 
been  jammed  between  the  rocks  in  their  fall.     This  Cordil- 
lera comprises  the  Andes  of  Cundinamarca  and  Merida,  and 


THE    ANDES.  97 

goes  north-east  through  Grenada  to  the  10th  northern  paral- 
lel, where  it  joins  the  coast-chain  of  Venezuela  or  Caraccas, 
which  runs  due  east,  and  ends  at  Cape  Paria  in  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  or  rather  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  island  of 
Trinidad.  This  coast-chain  is  so  majestic  and  beautiful  that 
Baron  Humboldt  says  it  is  like  the  Alps  rising  out  of  the 
sea  without  their  snow.  The  insulated  group  of  Santa 
Martha,  19,000  feet  high,  deeply  covered  with  snow,  stands 
on  an  extensive  plain  between  the  delta  of  the  Magdalena 
and  the  sea-lake  of  Maracaybo,  and  is  a  landmark  to  mariners 
far  off  in  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

The  passes  over  the  Chilian  Andes  are  numerous;  that  of 
Portilla,  leading  from  St.  Jago  to  Mendoza,  is  the  highest ; 
it  crosses  two  ridges;  the  most  elevated  is  14,365  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  vegetation  ceases  far  below  its  summit.  Those 
in  Peru  are  higher,  though  none  reach  the  snow-line.  In 
Bolivia  the  mean  elevation  of  the  passes  in  the  western  and 
eastern  Cordilleras  is  14,892  and  14,422  feet  respectively: 
the  peaks  in  the  eastern  Cordillera  are  the  highest,  but  the 
passes  in  the  western  are  on  the  most  elevated  part  of  the 
range,  while  those  in  the  eastern  are  on  the  lowest.  That 
leading  from  Sorata  to  the  auriferous  valley  of  Tipuani  is 
perhaps  the  highest  in  Bolivia.  From  the  total  absence  of 
vegetation  and  the  intense  cold  it  is  supposed  to  be  16,000 
feet  above  the  Pacific;  those  to  the  north  are  but  little  lower. 
The  pass  of  Quindiu  in  Colombia,  though  only  11,500  feet 
high,  is  the  most  difficult  of  all  across  the  Andes :  but  those 
crossinof  the  mountain-knots  from  one  table-land  to  another 
are  the  most  dangerous;  for  example,  that  over  the  Paramo 
del  Assuay,  in  the  plain  of  Quito,  where  the  road  is  nearly 
as  high  as  Mont  Blanc,  and  travellers  not  unfrequently  perish 
from  cold  winds  in  attempting  it. 

On  the  western  side  of  the  Andes  little  or  no  rain  falls, 
except  at  their  most  southern  extremity,  and  scanty  vegeta- 
tion appears  only  in  spots,  or  in  small  valleys.  Excessive 
heat  and  moisture  combine  to  cover  the  eastern  side  and  its 
offsets  with  tangled  forests  of  large  trees  and  dense  brush- 
wood. This  exuberance  diminishes  as  the  height  increases, 
till  at  last  the  barren  rocks  are  covered  only  by  snow  and 
glaciers.  Nothing  can  surpass  the  desolation  of  these  ele- 
vated regions,  where  nature  has  been  shaken  by  terrific  con- 
vulsions. The  dazzling  snow  fatigues  the  eye  ;  the  huge 
9 


98  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

masses  of  bald  rock,  the  mural  precipices,  and  the  chasms 
yawning  into  dark  unknown  depths,  strike  the  imagination  ; 
while  the  crash  of  the  avalanche,  or  the  rolling  thunder  of 
the  volcano,  startles  the  ear.  In  the  dead  of  night,  when 
the  sky  is  clear  and  the  wind  hushed,  the  hollow  moaning 
of  the  volcanic  fire  fills  the  Indian  with  superstitious  dread 
in  the  deathlike  stillness  of  these  solitudes. 

In  the  very  elevated  plains  in  the  transverse  groups,  such 
as  that  of  Bombon,  however  pure  the  sky,  the  landscape  is 
lurid  and  colourless  ;  the  dark  blue  shadows  are  sharply  de- 
fined, and  from  the  thinness  of  the  air  it  is  hardly  possible 
to  make  a  just  estimate  of  distance.  Changes  of  weather 
are  sudden  and  violent ;  clouds  of  black  vapour  arise,  and 
are  carried  by  fierce  winds  over  the  barren  plains  ;  snow  and 
hail  are  driven  with  irresistible  impetuosity  ;  and  thunder- 
storms come  on,  loud  and  awful,  without  warning.  Not- 
withstanding the  thinness  of  the  air,  the  crash  of  the  peals  is 
quite  appalling,  while  the  lightning  runs  along  the  scorched 
grass,  and  sometimes,  issuing  from  the  ground,  destroys  a 
team  of  mules  or  a  flock  of  sheep  at  one  flash.* 

Currents  of  warm  air  are  occasionally  met  with  on  the  crest 
of  the  Andes — an  extraordinary  phenomenon  in  such  gelid 
heights,  which  is  not  yet  accounted  for:  they  generally  occur 
two  hours  after  sunset,  are  local  and  narrow,  not  exceeding 
a  few^  fathoms  in  width;  similar  to  the  equally  partial  blasts 
of  hot  air  in  the  Alps.  A  singular  instance,  probably  of  earth- 
light,  occurs  in  crossing  the  Andes  from  Chili  to  Mendoza: 
on  this  rocky  scene  a  peculiar  brightness  occasionally  rests, 
a  kind  of  indescribable  reddish  light,  which  vanishes  during 
the  winter  rains,  and  is  not  perceptible  on  sunny  days.  Dr. 
Poeppig  ascribes  the  phenomenon  to  the  dryness  of  the  air; 
he  was  confirmed  in  his  opinion  from  afterwards  observing  a 
similar  brightness  on  the  coast  of  Peru,  and  it  has  also  been 
seen  in  Egypt. 

The  Andes  descend  to  the  eastern  plains  by  a  series  of 
cultivated  levels,  as  those  of  Tucuman,  Salta,  and  Jujuy,  in 
the  republic  of  La  Plata,  with  many  others.  That  of  Tucu- 
man is  3600  feet  above  the  sea,  the  garden  of  the  republic. 
The  low  lands  to  the  east  of  the  Andes  are  divided  by 
the  table-lands  and   mountains  of  Parima  and  Brazil  into 

*  Dr.  Pceppig's  '  Travels  in  South  America.' 


THE    PARIMA.  99 

three  parts,  of  very  different  aspect — the  deserts  and  pampas 
of  Patagonia  and  Buenos  Ayres  ;  the  Silvas,  or  woody  basin 
of  the  Amazons;  and  the  Llanos,  or  grassy  steppes  of  the 
Orinoco.  The  eastern  table- lands  nowhere  exceed  2500 
feet  of  absolute  height ;  and  the  plains  are  so  low  and  flat, 
especially  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  that  a  rise  of  1000  feet 
in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  would  submerge  more  than  half  the 
continent  of  South  America. 

The  system  of  the  Parima  is  a  group  of  mountains  scat- 
tered over  a  table-land  not  more  than  2000  feet  above  the 
sea,  which  extends  600  or  700  miles  from  east  to  west,  be- 
tween the  river  Orinoco,  the  Rio  Negro,  the  Amazons,  and 
the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  quite  unconnected  with  the  Andes, 
being  80  leagues  east  from  the  mountains  of  New  Grenada. 
It  begins  60  or  70  miles  from  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  and 
ascends  by  four  successive  terraces  to  undulating  plains  which 
come  within  one  or  two  degrees  of  the  equator,  and  is  twice 
as  long  as  it  is  broad. 

Seven  chains,  besides  groups  of  mountains,  cross  the  table- 
land from  west  to  east,  of  which  the  chief  is  the  Sierra  del 
Parima.  Beginning  at  the  mouth  of  the  Meta,  it  crosses  the 
plains  of  Esmeralda  to  the  borders  of  Brazil,  whence,  under 
the  name  of  the  Sierra  Pacaraime,  it  goes  to  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rupuniri,  a  tributary  of  the  Essequibo;  then,  bending  to 
the  south,  it  runs  in  a  tortuous  line  between  Brazil  and 
Guiana  to  the  Atlantic.  This  chain,  not  more  than  600 
feet  high,  is  everywhere  escarped,  and  forms  the  watershed 
between  the  tributaries  of  the  Amazons  and  those  of  the  Ori- 
noco, the  Essequibo,  and  the  rivers  of  Guiana.  The  Orinoco 
rises  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Sierra  del  Parima,  and  in 
its  circuitous  course  over  the  plains  of  Esmeralda  it  breaks 
through  the  western  extremity  of  that  chain  in  two  places, 
12  leagues  asunder,  where  it  dashes  with  violence  against 
the  transverse  shelving  rocks  and  dykes,  forming  the  splen- 
did series  of  rapids  and  cataracts  of  Maypures  and  Atures, 
from  whence  the  Parima  Mountains  have  got  the  name  of  the 
Cordillera  of  the  cataracts  of  the  Orinoco.  The  chain  is  of 
granite,  which  forms  the  banks  and  fills  the  bed  of  the  river, 
covered  with  luxuriant  tropical  vegetation,  especially  palm- 
forests.  In  the  district  of  the  Upper  Orinoco,  near  Chari- 
chana,  there  is  a  granite  rock  which  emits  musical  sounds 
at  sunrise,  like  the  notes  of  an  organ,  occasioned  by  the  dif- 


100  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

ference  of  temperature  of  the  external  air  and  that  which 
fills  the  deep  narrow  crevices  with  which  the  rock  is  every- 
where torn.  Something  of  the  same  kind  occurs  at  Mount 
Sinai. 

The  other  parallel  chains  that  extend  over  the  table-land 
in  Venezuela  and  Guiana  are  separated  by  flat  savannahs, 
generally  barren  in  the  dry  season,  but  after  the  rains 
covered  with  a  carpet  of  emerald- green  grass,  often  six  feet 
high,  mixed  with  flowers.  The  vegetation  in  these  coun- 
tries is  splendid  beyond  imagination :  the  regions  of  the  Upper 
Orinoco  and  Rio  Negro,  and  of  almost  all  the  mountains  and 
banks  of  rivers  in  Guiana,  are  clothed  with  majestic  and  im- 
penetrable forests,  whose  moist  and  hot  recesses  are  the  abode 
of  the  singular  and  beautiful  race  of  the  Orchideee  and  tan- 
gled creepers  of  many  kinds. 

Although  all  the  mountains  of  the  system  of  Parima  are 
wild  and  rugged,  they  are  not  high;  the  inaccessible  peak 
of  the  Cerro  Duida,  which  rises  insulated  7155  feet  above 
the  plain  of  Esmeralda,  is  the  culminating  point,  and  the 
highest  mountain  in  South  America  east  of  the  Andes. 

The  fine  savannahs  of  the  Rupununi  were  the  country  of 
romance  in  the  days  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  South  of  the  Pa- 
caraime,  near  an  inlet  of  the  river,  the  far-famed  city  of  Manoa 
was  supposed  to  stand,  the  object  of  the  unfortunate  expedi- 
tion of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh;  about  11  miles  south-west  of 
which  is  situated  the  Lake  Amucu,  "the  Great  Lake  with 
golden  banks," — great  only  during  the  periodical  floods. 

On  the  southern  side  of  the  basin  of  the  river  Amazons 
lies  the  table-land  of  Brazil,  nowhere  more  than  2500  feet 
high,  which  occupies  half  of  that  empire,  together  with  part 
of  the  Argentine  Republic  and  Uruguay  Orientale.  Its  form 
is  a  triangle,  whose  apex  is  at  the  confluence  of  the  rivers 
Marmora  and  Beni,  and  its  base  extends,  near  the  shore  of 
the  Atlantic,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  to  within 
three  degrees  of  the  equator.  It  is  diflScult  to  define  the 
limits  of  this  vast  territory,  but  some  idea  may  be  formed  of 
it  by  following  the  direction  of  the  rapids  and  cataracts  of 
the  rivers  descending  from  it  to  the  plains  around.  Thus 
a  line  drawn  from  the  fall  of  the  river  Tocantines,  in  3°  30' 
S.  lat.,  to  the  cataracts  of  the  Madiera,  in  the  eighth  degree 
of  south  latitude,  will  nearly  mark  its  northern  boundary: 
from  thence  the  line  would  run  S.W.  to  the  jnnction  of  the 


THE    PARIMA.  101 

Marmora  and  Beni  ;  then,  turning  to  the  S.E.  along  the  Serro 
dos  Paricis,  it  would  proceed  south  to  the  cataract  of  the 
Parana,  called  the  Sete  Quedas,  in  24°  30'  S.  lat.  ;  and 
lastly,  from  thence,  by  the  great  falls  of  the  river  Iguassu, 
to  the  Morro  de  Santa  Martha,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata. 

Chains  of  mountains,  nearly  parallel,  extend  from  south- 
west to  north-east,  700  miles  along  the  base  of  the  triangle, 
with  a  breadth  of  about  400  miles.  Of  these  the  Sierra  do 
Mar,  or  the  "  coast-chain,"  reaches  from  the  river  Uruguay 
to  Cape  San  Roque,  never  more  distant  than  20  miles  from 
the  Atlantic,  except  to  the  south  of  the  bay  of  Santos,  where 
it  is  80.  Offsets  diverge  to  the  right  and  left :  the  granite 
peak  of  Corcovedo,  in  the  bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  2306  feet 
high,  is  the  end  of  one.  The  parallel  chain  of  Espenha^o, 
beginning  near  the  town  of  San  Paolo,  and  forming  the  wes- 
tern boundary  of  the  basin  of  the  Rio  San  Francisco,  is  the 
highest  in  Brazil,  one  of  its  mountains  being  8426  feet  above 
the  sea.  All  the  mountains  in  Brazil  have  a  general  ten- 
dency from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  except  the  transverse  chain  of 
Sierra  das  Vertentes,  which  begins  60  miles  south  of  Villa 
Rica,  and  runs  in  a  tortuous  line  to  its  termination  near  the 
junction  of  the  Marmora  and  Beni,  in  11°  S.  lat.  It  forms 
the  watershed  of  the  tributaries  of  the  San  Francesco  and 
Amazons  on  the  north,  and  those  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  on 
the  south;  its  greatest  height  is  3500  feet  above  the  sea,  but 
its  western  part,  the  Sierra  Paricis,  is  merely  a  succession  of 
detached  hills.  This  chain,  the  coast-chain  of  Venezuela 
and  the  mountains  of  Parima,  are  the  only  ranges  on  the  con- 
tinent of  America  that  do  not  entirely,  or  in  some  degree, 
lie  in  the  direction  of  the  meridians. 

Magnificent  forests  of  tall  trees,  bound  together  by  tangled 
creeping  and  parasitical  plants,  clothe  the  declivities  of  the 
mountains,  and  line  the  borders  of  the  Brazilian  rivers, 
where  the  soil  is  rich  and  the  verdure  brilliant.  Many  of 
the  plains  on  the  table-land  bear  a  coarse  nutritious  grass 
after  the  rains  only  ;  but  vast  undulating  tracts  are  always 
verdant  with  excellent  pasture,  intermixed  with  fields  of 
corn  :  some  parts  are  bare  sand  and  rolled  quartz ;  and  the 
Campas  Paricis,  north  of  the  Sierra  Vestentes,  in  Matto  Grasso, 
is  a  sandy  desert  of  unknown  extent,  similar  to  the  Great 
Gobi  on  the  table-land  of  Tibet. 
9* 


102  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE    LOW    LANDS  OF    SOUTH    AMERICA DESERT  OF  PATAGONIA 

THE    PAMPAS     OF     BUENOS     AYRES THE     SILVAS     OF     THE 

AMAZONS THE    LLANOS    OF    THE   ORINOCO    AND    VENEZUELA 

GEOLOGICAL    NOTICE. 

The  southern  plains  are  the  most  barren  of  the  three  great 
tracts  of  American  low  lands  ;  they  stretch  from  Terra  del 
Fuego  over  27  degrees  of  latitude,  or  1900  miles,  nearly  to 
Tucuman  and  the  mountains  of  Brazil.  Palms  grow  at  one 
end,  deep  snow  covers  the  other  many  months  in  the  year. 
This  enormous  plain,  of  1,620,000  square  miles,  begins  on  the 
eastern  part  of  Terra  del  Fuego,  which  is  a  flat  covered  with 
trees,  and  therefore  superior  to  its  continuation  on  the  con- 
tinent through  eastern  Patagonia,  which,  for  800  miles  from 
the  land's  end  to  beyond  the  Rio  Colorado,  is  a  desert  of 
shingle.  It  is  occasionally  diversified  by  huge  boulders, 
tufts  of  brown  grass,  low  bushes  armed  with  spines,  brine 
lakes,  incrustations  of  salt  white  as  snow,  and  by  black 
basaltic  platforms,  like  plains  of  iron,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Andes,  barren  as  the  rest.  Eastern  Patagonia,  however,  is 
not  one  universal  flat,  but  a  succession  of  shingly  horizontal 
plains  at  higher  and  higher  levels,  separated  by  long  lines 
of  cliffs  or  escarpments,  the  gable  ends  of  the  tiers  or  plains. 
The  ascent  is  small,  for  even  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes  the 
highest  of  these  platforms  is  only  3000  feet  above  the  ocean. 
The  plains  are  here  and  there  intersected  by  a  ravine  or  a 
stream,  the  waters  of  which  do  not  fertilize  the  blighted  soil. 
The  transition  from  intense  heat  to  intense  cold  is  rapid,  and 
piercing  winds  often  rush  in  hurricanes  over  these  deserts, 
shunned  even  by  the  Indian,  except  when  he  crosses  them 
to  visit  the  tombs  of  his  fathers.  The  shingle  ends  a  few 
miles  to  the  north  of  the  Rio  Colorado  :  there  the  red  cal- 
careous earth  of  the  Pampas  begins,  monotonously  covered 
with  coarse  tufted  grass  without  a  tree  or  bush.  This  coun- 
try, nearly  as  level  as  the  sea,  and  without  a  stone,  extends 
almost  to  the  table-land  of  Brazil,  and  for  1000  miles  be- 


THE    PAMPAS. 


103 


tween  the  Atlantic  and  the  Andes,  interrupted  only  at  vast 
distances  by  a  solitary  umbu,  the  only  tree  of  this  soil, 
rising  like  a  great  landmark.  This  wide  space,  though 
almost  destitute  of  water,  is  not  all  of  the  same  description. 
In  the  Pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres  there  are  four  distinct 
regions.  For  180  miles  west  from  Buenos  Ayres  they  are 
covered  with  thisUes  and  lucern  of  the  most  vivid  green  so 
long  as  the  moisture  from  the  rain  lasts.  In  spring  the 
verdure  fades,  and  a  month  afterwards  the  thistles  shoot  up 
10  feet  high,  so  dense  and  so  protected  by  spines  that  they 
are  impenetrable.  During  summer  the  dried  stalks  are 
broken  by  the  wind,  and  the  lucern  again  spreads  freshness 
over  the  ground.  The  Pampas  for  430  miles  west  of  this 
region  is  a  thicket  of  long  tufted  luxuriant  grass,  intermixed 
with  gaudy  flowers,  affording  inexhaustible  pasture  to  thou- 
sands of  horses  and  cattle  ;  this  is  followed  by  a  tract  of 
swamps  and  bogs,  to  which  succeeds  a  region  of  ravines 
and  stones,  and,  lastly,  a  zone,  reaching  to  the  Andes,  of 
thorny  bushes  and  dwarf  trees  in  one  dense  thicket.  The 
flat  plains  in  Entre  Rios  in  Uruguay,  those  of  Santa  Fe,  and 
a  great  part  of  Cordova  and  Tucuman,  are  of  sward,  with 
cattle  farms.  The  banks  of  the  Parana,  and  other  tributaries 
of  the  La  Plata,  are  adorned  with  an  infinite  variety  of 
tropical  productions,  especially  the  graceful  tribe  of  palms  ; 
and  the  river  islands  are  bright  with  orange-groves.  A 
desert  of  sand,  called  II  Gran  Chaco,  exists  w^est  of  the 
Parac^uay,  the  vegetable  produce  of  which  is  confined  to 
varieties  of  the  aloe  and  cactus  tribes,  the  last  the  food  of 
the  cochineal  insect,  which  forms  a  valuable  article  of  com- 
merce. Adjoining  this  desert  are  the  unknown  regions  of 
the  Chiquitos  and  Moxos,  covered  with  forests  and  jungle. 

The  Pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres,  1000  feet  above  the  sea, 
sinks  to  its  level  along  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  where  the 
streams  from  the  mountains  collect  in  large  lakes,  swamps, 
lagoons  of  prodigious  size,  and  wide-spreading  salines.  The 
swamp  or  lagoon  of  Ybera,  of  1000  square  miles,  is  entirely 
covered  with  aquatic  plants.  These  swamps  are  swollen  to 
thousands  of  square  miles  by  the  annual  floods  of  the  rivers, 
which  almost  inundate  the  Pampas,  leaving  a  fertilizing  coat 
of  mud.  Multitudes  of  animals  perish  in  the  floods,  and  the 
drought  that  sometimes  succeeds  is  more  fatal.  Between 
the  years  1830  and  1832  two  millions  of  cattle  died  from 


104  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

want  of  food.  Millions  of  animals  are  sometimes  destroyed 
by  casual  and  dreadful  conflagrations  in  these  countries, 
when  covered  with  dry  grass  and  thistles. 

The   Silvas  of  the   river  of  the   Amazons,  lying  in    the 
centre  of  the  continent,  form  the  second  division  of  the  South 
American  low  lands.     This  country  is  more  uneven  than  the 
Pampas,  and  the  vegetation  is   so  dense  that  it  can  only  be 
penetrated  by  sailing   up  the   river  or   its  tributaries.     The 
forests  not  only  cover  the  basin  of  the  Amazons,  but  also  its 
limiting  mountain-chains,  the  Sierra  Vertentes  and  Parima  ; 
so  that  the  whole  forms  an  area  of  woodland  more  than  six 
times   the  size    of  France,   lying    between   the    eighteenth 
parallel  of  south  latitude  and  the  seventh  of  north;  conse- 
quently intertropical  and  traversed  by  the  equator.     There 
are  some  marshy  savannahs   between   the   third   and  fourth 
degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  some  grassy  steppes  south  of 
the  Pacaraim   chain;  but  they  are  insignificant   compared 
with  the  Silvas,  which  extend   1500  miles  along  the  river, 
varying  in   breadth   from  350   to  800  miles,  and   probably 
more.     According  to  Baron  Humboldt,  the  soil,  enriched 
for   ages  by  the  spoils  of   the  forest,  consists  of  the  rich- 
est mould.     The  heat  is   suffocating   in  the  deep  and  dark 
recesses  of  these  primeval   woods,   where   not  a  breath  of 
air  penetrates,  and  where,  after  being  drenched    by  the  pe- 
riodical  rains,  the   damp   is  so  excessive  that  a  blue  mist 
rises  in  the  early  morning  among  the  huge  stems  of  the  trees, 
and  envelops  the  entangled  creepers  stretching  from  bough 
to  bough.     A   deathlike    stillness  prevails   from  sunrise  to 
sunset ;  then  the   thousands  of  animals  that   inhabit   these 
forests   join  in  one  loud  discordant  roar,  not    continuous, 
but  in   bursts.     The   beasts   seem   to   be   periodically  and 
unanimously   roused,   by  some   unknown  impulse,  till   the 
forest  rings  in  universal  uproar.     Profound  silence  prevails 
at  midnight,  which  is  broken  at  the   dawn  of  morning  by 
another  general  roar  of  the  wild  chorus.     Nightingales,  too, 
have  their  fits  of  silence  and  song  ;  after  a  pause,  they 

all  burst  forth  in  choral  minstrelsy, 


As  if  some  sudden  gale  had  swept  at  once 
A  hundred  airy  harps,"* 

The  whole  forest  often  resounds,  when  the  animals,  startled 

*   Wordsworth. 


THE    LLANOS.  105 

from  their  sleep,  scream   in   terror  at  the  noise   made  by 
bands  of  its  inhabitants  flying  from  some  night-prowling  foe. 
Their  anxiety  and  terror  before  a  thunder-storm  is  exces- 
sive, and  all  nature  seems  to  partake  in  the   dread.     The 
tops  of  the  lofty  trees  rustle  ominously,  though  not  a  breath 
of  air  agitates  them  ;  a  hollow  whistling  in  the  high  regions 
of  the  atmosphere  comes  as  a  warning  from  the  black  floating 
vapour;    midnight   darkness   envelops  the  ancient  forests, 
which  soon  after  groan  and  creak  with  the  blast  of  the  hur- 
ricane.     The  gloom  is  rendered  still  more  hideous  by  the 
vivid  lightning  and  the  stunning  crash  of  thunder.     Even 
fishes  are  aflected  with  the  general  consternation  ;   for  in  a 
few  minutes  the  Amazons  rages  in  waves  like  a  stormy  sea. 
The  Llanos  of  the  Orinoco  and  Venezuela,  covered  with 
long  grass,  form  the  third    department  of  South   American 
low  lands,  and  occupy  153,000   square   miles   between  the 
deltas  of  the  Orinoco  and  the  river  Coqueta,  flat  as  the  sur- 
face of  the  sea;  frequently  there  is  not  an  eminence  a  foot 
high  in  270  square  miles.     They  are  twice  as  long  as  they  are 
broad  ;  and,  as  the  wind  blows  constantly  from  the  east,  the 
climate  is  the  more  ardent  the  farther  west.     These  steppes 
for  the  most  part  are  destitute  of  trees  or  bushes,  yet  in  some 
places  they  are  dotted  with  the  mauritia  and  other  palm-trees. 
Flat  as  these  plains  are,  there  are  in  some  places  two  kinds 
of  inequalities:    one   consists  of  banks  or  shoals  of  grit  or 
compact  limestone,  five  or  six  feet  high,  perfectly  level  for 
several  leagues,  and  imperceptible  except  on  their  edges  ; 
the  other  inequality  can  only  be  detected  by  the  barometer 
or  levelling  instruments  ;  it  is  called  a  Mesa,  and  is  an  emi- 
nence rising  imperceptibly  to   the   height  of  some  fathoms. 
Small  as  the  elevation  is,  a  mesa  forms  the  watershed,  from 
S.W.  to  N.E.,  between  the  affluents  of  the  Orinoco  and  the 
streams  flowing  to  the  northern  coast  of  Terra  Firma.     In 
the  wet  season,  from  April  to  the  end  of  October,  the  tropical 
rains  pour  down  in  torrents,  and  hundreds  of  square  miles 
of  the  Llanos  are   inundated   by  the   floods   of  the   rivers. 
The  water  is  sometimes  12  feet   deep  in   the  hollows,  in 
which  so  many  horses   and  other  animals  perish  that  the 
ground  smells  of  musk,  an  odour   peculiar  to   many  South 
American  quadrupeds.     From  the  flatness  of  the  country, 
too,  the  waters  of  some  affluents  of  the  Orinoco  are  driven 
backwards  by  the  floods  of  that  river,  especially  when  aided 


106  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

by  the  wind,  and  form  temporary  lakes.  When  the  waters 
subside  these  steppes,  manured  by  the  sediment,  are  mantled 
with  verdure,  and  produce  ananas  with  occasional  groups 
of  palm-trees,  and  mimosas  skirt  the  rivers.  When  the  dry 
weather  returns,  the  grass  is  burnt  to  powder,  the  air  is 
filled  with  dust  raised  by  currents  occasioned  by  difference 
of  temperature,  even  where  there  is  no  wind.  If  by  any 
accident  a  spark  of  fire  falls  on  the  scorched  plains,  a  con- 
flagration spreads  from  river  to  river,  destroying  every 
animal,  and  leaves  the  clayey  soil  sterile  for  years,  till 
vicissitudes  of  weather  crumble  the  brick-like  surface  into 
earth. 

The  Llanos  lie  between  the  equator  and  the  Tropic  of 
Cancer  ;  consequently  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  about 
84°  of  Fahrenheit.  The  heat  is  most  intense  during  the 
rainy  season,  when  tremendous  thunder-storms  are  of  com- 
mon occurrence. 


GEOLOGY  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

The  most  remarkable  circumstance  in  the  geological  ar- 
rangement of  South  America  is  the  vast  but  partial  develop- 
ment of  volcanic  force,  which  is  confined  to  the  chain  of  the 
Andes,  and  even  in  some  parts  only  to  the  western  Cordillera, 
while  not  a  trace  of  it  is  to  be  found  either  on  the  great  plains 
to  the  east,  or  on  the  table-lands  which  divide  them.  The 
actual  vents  occur  in  linear  groups.  The  most  southern  of 
these  extends  from  Yntales  in  Patagonia  to  the  volcanoes  of 
central  Chili,  a  distance  of  800  miles :  the  second  volcanic 
line,  occupying  600  miles  of  latitude,  lies  between  Araquipo 
and  Patas  :*  the  third  extends  over  300  miles  between 
Riobamba  and  Popayan.  That  these  groups  of  active  vol- 
canoes are  connected  there  can  be  little  doubt,  as  they  are 
only  separated  by  a  few  hundred  miles;  and  thus  there  is  a 
line  of  volcanic  action,  1700  miles  long,  entirely  confined  to 
the  Andes,  to  which  the  volcanic  islands  of  Juan  Fernandez 
and  the  Galapagos  form  a  parallel  line. 

Granite,  which  seems  to  be  the  base  of  the  whole  conti- 
nent, is  widely  spread  to  the  east  and  south  :    it  appears  in 

•   Mr.  Darwin. 


GEOLOGY  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA.  107 

Terra  del  Fuego  and  in  the  Patagonian  Andes  abundantly 
and  at  great  elevations  ;  but  it  comes  into  view  so  rarely  in 
the  other  parts  of  the  chain  that  Baron  Hunaboldt  says  a 
person  might  travel  years  in  the  Andes  of  Peru  and  Quito 
without  falling  in  with  it:  he  never  saw  it  at  a  greater 
height  above  the  sea  than  11,500  feet.  Gneiss  is  here  and 
there  associated  with  the  granite,  but  mica-schist  is  by  much 
the  most  common  of  the  crystalline  rocks.  Quartz  is  also 
much  developed,  generally  mixed  with  mica,  and  rich  in 
gold,  mercury,  specular  iron,  and  sulphur.  It  sometimes 
extends  several  leagues  in  the  western  declivities  of  Peru, 
6000  feet  thick.  Red  sandstone,  of  vast  dimensions,  and 
of  different  geological  periods,  occurs  in  the  Andes,  and  on 
the  table-land  east  of  them,  where  in  some  places,  as  in 
Colombia,  it  spreads  over  thousands  of  miles  to  the  shores 
of  the  Atlantic.  It  is  widely  extended  at  altitudes  of 
10,000  and  12,000  feet :  for  example,  on  the  table-lands 
of  Tarqui  and  Cuenja.  Coal  is  sometimes  associated  with 
it,  and  is  found  at  Huenca  in  Peru,  14,750  feet  above 
the  sea. 

Porphyry  abounds  all  over  the  Andes,  from  Patagonia  to 
Colombia,  at  every  elevation,  on  the  slopes  and  summits  of 
the  mountains,  sometimes  19,000  feet  thick,  but  not  uni- 
formly of  the  same  age  or  nature.  The  variety  of  most  fre- 
quent occurrence  is  rich  in  metals,  while  another  is  destitute 
of  them.  The  bare  and  precipitous  porphyry  rocks  give 
great  variety  to  the  colouring  of  the  Andes,  especially  in 
Chili,  where  purple,  tile-red,  and  brown  are  contrasted  with 
the  snow  on  the  summit  of  the  chain.* 

Trachyte  is  almost  as  abundant  as  porphyry.  Many  of 
the  loftiest  parts  and  all  the  great  dome-shaped  mountains 
in  the  iVndes  are  formed  of  it.  Masses  of  this  rock,  from 
14,000  to  18,000  teet  thick,  are  seen  in  Chimborazo  and 
Pinchincha.  Prodigious  quantities  of  volcanic  products, 
lava,  tufa,  and  obsidian,  occur  on  the  w^estern  face  of  the 
Andes,  where  volcanoes  are  active.  On  the  eastern  side 
there  are  none.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  that  part  of 
the  chain  lying  between  the  equator  and  Chili.  The  Boli- 
vian Cordilleras,  which  are  the  boundary  of  the  .valley  of 
Desaguerado,  furnish  a  striking  example.     The  Cordillera 

*  Dr.  Pceppig. 


108  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

of  the  coast  is  entirely  composed  of  obsidian,  trachyte,  and 
tufa,  while  the  eastern  Cordillera  consists  of  syenite,  mica- 
schist,  porphyry,  and  sandstone  ;  marl,  containing  gypsum, 
oolitic  limestone,  and  rock  salt,  of  the  most  beautiful  colours. 
Towards  Chili  and  throughout  the  Chilian  range  the  case  is 
different,  because  active  volcanoes  are  there  in  the  centre  of 
the  chain. 

Sea-shells  of  different  geological  periods  are  found  at 
various  elevations,  which  shows  that  many  upheavings  and 
subsidences  have  taken  place  in  the  chain  of  the  Andes, 
especially  at  its  southern  extremity.  Stems  of  large  trees, 
wdiich  Mr.  Darwin  found  in  a  fossil  state  in  the  Upsallata 
range,  a  collateral  branch  of  the  Chilian  Andes,  now  700 
miles  distant  from  the  Atlantic,  exhibit  a  remarkable  example 
of  such  vicissitudes.  These  trees,  with  the  volcanic  soil  on 
which  they  had  grown,  had  sunk  from  the  beach  to  the 
bottom  of  a  deep  ocean,  from  which,  after  five  alternations  of 
sedimentary  deposits  and  deluges  of  submarine  lava  of  pro- 
digious thickness,  the  whole  mass  was  raised  up,  and  now 
forms  the  Upsallata  chain.  Subsequently  by  the  wearing  of 
streams,  the  imbedded  trunks  have  been  brought  into  view 
in  a  silicified  state,  projecting  from  the  soil  on  which  they 
grew — now  solid  rock. 

"Vast  and  scarcely  comprehensible  as  such  changes  must 
ever  appear,  yet  they  have  all  occurred  within  a  period 
recent  when  compared  with  the  history  of  the  Cordillera  ; 
and  the  Cordillera  itself  is  absolutely  modern,  compared 
with  many  of  the  fossiliferous  strata  of  Europe  and  Ame- 
rica."* 

From  the  quantity  of  shingle  and  sand  on  the  valleys  in 
the  lower  ridges,  as  well  as  at  altitudes  from  7000  to  9000 
feet  above  the  present  level  of  the  sea,  it  appears  that  the 
whole  area  of  the  Chilian  Andes  has  been  raised  by  a 
gradual  motion  ;  and  the  coast  is  now  rising  by  the  same 
imperceptible  degrees,  though  it  is  sometimes  suddenly 
elevated  by  a  succession  of  small  upheavings  of  a  few  feet 
by  earthquakes,  similar  to  that  which  shook  the  continent 
for  a  thousand  miles  on  the  20th  of  February,  1835. 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes  the  land  from  Terra  del 
Fuego  to  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  has  been  raised   en  masse  by 

*   Darwin'd  Journal  of  Travels  in  South  America. 


GEOLOGY    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA.  109 

one  great  deviating  force,  acting  equally  and  impercepti- 
bly for  2000  miles,  within  the  period  of  the  shell-fish  now- 
existing,  which  in  many  parts  of  these  plains  even  still 
retain  their  colours.  The  gradual  upward  movement  was 
interrupted  by  at  least  eight  long  periods  of  rest,  marked 
by  the  edges  of  the  successive  plains,  which,  extending 
from  south  to  north,  had  formed  so  many  lines  of  sea-coast, 
as  they  rose  higher  and  higher  between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Andes.  It  appears,  from  the  shingle  and  fossil  shells  found 
on  both  sides  of  the  Cordillera,  that  the  whole  south-western 
extremity  of  the  continent  has  been  rising  slowly  for  a  long 
time,  and  indeed  the  w^hole  Andean  chain. 

The  instability  of  the  southern  part  of  the  continent  is  less 
astonishing  if  it  be  considered  that  at  the  time  of  the  earth- 
quake of  1835  the  volcanoes  in  the  Chilian  Andes  w^ere  in 
eruption  contemporaneously  for  720  miles  in  one  direction, 
and  400  in  another;  so  that  in  all  probability  there  was  a 
subterranean  lake  of  burning  lava  below  this  end  of  the  con- 
tinent twice  as  large  as  the  Black  Sea.* 

The  terraced  plains  of  Patagonia,  which  extend  hundreds 
of  miles  along  the  coast,  are  tertiary  strata,  not  in  basins, 
but  in  one  great  deposit,  above  which  lies  a  thick  stratum 
of  white  pumaceous  substance,  extending  at  least  500  miles, 
a  tenth  part  of  which  consists  of  marine  infusoria.  Over 
the  wdiole  lies  the  shingle  already  mentioned,  spread  over 
the  coast  for  700  miles  in  length,  \vith  a  mean  breadth  of 
200  miles,  and  50  feet  thick."  These  myriads  of  pebbles, 
chiefly  of  porphyry,  have  been  torn  from  the  rocks  of  the 
Andes,  and  water-worn,  at  a  period  subsequent  to  the  de- 
position of  the  tertiary  strata — a  period  of  incalculable  dura- 
tion. All  the  plains  of  Terra  del  Fuego  and  Patagonia,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Andes,  are  strewed  with  huge  boulders, 
transported  by  icebergs,  which  had  descended  to  lower  lati- 
tudes in  ancient  times  than  they  do  now — observations  of 
great  interest,  which  we  owe  to  Mr.  Darwin. 

The  stunted  vegetation  of  these  sterile  plains  was  suffi- 
cient to  nourish  large  animals  of  the  pachydermata  tribe, 
now  extinct,  even  at  a  period  when  the  present  shell-fish  of 
the  Patagonian  seas  existed. 

The   Pampas  of  Buenos   Ayres   are  entirely  alluvial,  the 

»   Darwin's  .Tournal  of  Travels  in  South  America. 

10 


110  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

deposit  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  Granite  prevails  to  the 
extent  of  2000  miles  along  the  coast  of  Brazil,  and  with 
syenite  forms  the  base  of  the  table-land.  The  superstructure 
of  the  latter  consists  of  metamorphic  and  old  igneous  rocks, 
sandstone,  clay-slate,  limestone,  in  which  are  large  caverns 
with  bones  of  extinct  animals,  and  alluvial  soil.  Gold  is 
found  in  the  channels  of  the  rivers,  and  no  country  is  so  rich 
in  diamonds. 

The  fertile  soil  of  the  Silvas  has  travelled  from  afar. 
Washed  down  from  the  Andes,  it  has  been  gradually  de- 
posited and  manured  by  the  decay  of  a  thousand  forests. 
Granite  again  appears  in  more  than  its  usual  ruggedness  in 
the  table-land  and  mountains  of  the  Parima  system.  The 
sandstone  of  the  Andes  is  found  there  also  in  a  chain  7300 
feet  high  ;  and  on  the  plains  of  Esmeralda  it  caps  the  granite 
of  the  solitary  prism-shaped  Duido,  the  culminating  moun- 
tain of  the  Parima  system.  Limestone  appears  in  the  Brigan- 
tine  or  Cocallar,  the  most  southern  of  the  three  ranges  of  the 
coast-chain  of  Venezuela  ;  the  other  two  are  of  granite, 
metamorphic  rocks,  and  crystalline  schists,  torn  by  earth- 
quakes and  worn  by  the  sea,  which  has  deeply  indented  that 
coast.  The  chain  of  islands  in  the  Spanish  main  is  merely 
the  wreck  of  a  more  northern  ridge,  broken  up  into  detached 
masses  by  these  irresistible  powers. 


CHAPTER  X. 

CENTRAL    AMERICA WEST    INDIAN  ISLANDS GEOLOGICAL 

NOTICE. 

Taking  the  natural  divisions  of  the  continent  alone  into  con- 
sideration, Central  America  may  be  regarded  as  lying  be- 
tween the  7th  and  20th  parallels  of  north  latitude,  and  con- 
sequently in  a  tropical  climate.  The  narrow  tortuous  strip 
of  land  which  unites  the  continents  of  North  and  South 
America  stretches  from  S.E.  to  N.  W.  about  1000  miles,  vary- 
ing in  breadth  from  30  miles  to  300  or  400. 

As  a  regular  chain,  the  Andes  terminate  suddenly  at  the 
plain  of  Panama,  but  as  a  mass  of  high  land  they  continue 


CENTRAL    AMERICA.  Ill 

through  Central  America  and  Mexico,  in  an  irregular  mix- 
ture of  table-lands  and  mountains.  These  table-lands,  how- 
ever, differ  from  those  in  the  Andes  of  South  America,  inas- 
much as  they  are  not  bounded  on  each  side  by  Cordilleras 
following  the  direction  of  the  chain,  but  are  traversed  by 
ranges  running  over  them  in  all  directions,  or  studded  by 
mountains.  The  mass  of  high  land  which  forms  the  central 
ridge  of  the  country,  and  the  watershed  between  the  two 
oceans,  is  very  steep  on  its  western  side,  and  runs  near  the 
coast  of  the  Pacific,  where  Central  America  is  narrow;  but 
to  the  north,  where  it  becomes  wider,  the  high  land  recedes 
to  a  greater  distance  from  the  shore  than  the  Andes  do  in 
any  other  part  between  Cape  Horn  and  Mexico. 

The  plains  of  Panama,  very  little  raised  above  the  sea, 
but  in  some  parts  studded  with  hills,  follow  the  direction  of 
the  isthmus  for  280  miles,  and  end  at  the  Bay  of  Parita. 
From  thence  a  mass,  about  3000  feet  high,  of  forest-covered 
table-lands  and  complicated  mountains,  extends  through  Ve- 
ragua  and  Porta  Rica  to  the  Lake  of  Nicaragua.  The  plain 
of  Nicaragua,  together  with  its  lake,  occupies  an  area  of 
30,000  square  miles,  and  forms  the  second  break  in  the  great 
Andean  chain.  The  lake  is  only  128  feet  above  the  Pacific, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  line  of  active  volcanoes.  The 
river  San  Juan  de  Nicarapua  flows  from  its  eastern  end  into 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  its  northern  extremity  is  connected 
with  the  smaller  lake  of  Managua  by  the  river  Panalaya. 
By  this  water-line  it  has  been  projected  to  unite  the  two  seas. 
The  high  land  begins  again,  after  an  interval  of  170  miles, 
with  the  Mosquito  country  and  Honduras,  which  mostly  con- 
sist of  table-lands,  high  mountains,  and  some  volcanoes. 

The  broad  elevated  belt  of  Guatemala  lies  between  the 
Isthmus  of  Chiquimala  and  that  of  Tehuantepec.  It  spreads 
out  to  the  east  and  forms  the  hi^h  but  narrow  table-land  on 
the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  which  terminates  at  Cape  Catoch, 
and  which  is  bounded  by  high  mountains  and  terraces  along 
the  Gulf  of  Honduras.  The  table-land  of  Guatemala  con- 
sists of  undulating  verdant  plains  of  great  extent,  of  the  ab- 
solute height  of  5000  feet,  fragrant  with  flowers.  In  the 
southern  part  of  the  table-land  the  cities  of  Old  and  New 
Guatemala  are  situate,  12  miles  apart.  The  portion  of  the 
plain  on  which  the  new  city  stands  is  bounded  on  the  west 
by  the  three  volcanoes  of  Pacaya,  del  Fuego,  and  d'Agua; 


112  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

these,  rising  from  7000  to  10,000  feet  above  the  plain,  lie 
close  to  the  new  city  on  the  west,  and  form  a  scene  of  won- 
derful boldness  and  beauty.  The  Volcano  de  Agua,  at  the 
foot  of  which  Old  Guatemala  stands,  is  a  perfect  cone,  ver- 
dant to  its  summit,  which  occasionally  pours  forth  torrents 
of  boiling  water  and  stones.  The  old  city  has  been  twice 
destroyed  by  it,  and  is  now  nearly  deserted  on  account  of 
violent  earthquakes.  The  Volcano  del  Fuego  generally  emits 
smoke  from  one  of  its  peaks,  and  the  Volcano  de  Pacayo  is 
only  occasionally  active.  The  wide  grassy  plains  are  cut  by 
dee'p  valleys  to  the  north,  where  the  high  land  of  Guatemala 
ends  in  parallel  ridges  of  mountains,  called  the  Cerro  Pelado, 
which  run  from  east  to  west  along  the  94th  meridian,  filling 
half  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  which  is  140  miles  broad, 
and  unites  the  table-land  of  Guatemala  with  that  of  Mexico. 

Thouo:h  there  are  large  savannahs  on  the  high  plains  of 
Guatemala,  there  are  also  magnificent  primeval  forests,  as 
the  name  of  the  country  implies,  Guatemala,  in  the  Mexican 
language,  signifying  a  place  covered  with  trees.  The  banks 
of  the  Rio  de  la  Papian,or  Usumasinta,  which  rises  in  the 
Alpine  lake  of  Lacandon  and  flows  over  the  table-land  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  are  beautiful  beyond  description. 

The  coasts  of  Central  America  are  generally  narrow,  and 
in  some  places  the  mountains  and  high  lands  come  close  to 
the  water's  edge.  The  sugar-cane  is  indigenous,  and  on  the 
low  lands  of  the  eastern  coast  all  the  ordinary  produce  of  the 
West  Indian  Islands  is  raised,  besides  much  that  is  peculiar 
to  the  country. 

As  the  climate  is  cool  on  the  high  lands,  the  vegetation 
of  the  temperate  zone  is  in  perfection.  On  the  low  lands, 
as  in  other  countries  where  heat  and  moisture  are  in  excess, 
and  where  nature  is  for  the  most  part  undisturbed,  vegeta- 
tion is  vigorous  to  rankness;  forests  of  gigantic  timber  seek 
the  free  air  above  an  impenetrable  undergrowth,  and  the 
mouths  of- the  rivers  are  dense  masses  of  jungle  with  man- 
groves, and  reeds  100  feet  high:  yet  delightful  savannahs 
vary  the  scene,  and  wooded   mountains  dip  into   the  water. 

Nearly  all  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  is  skirted  by  an  alluvial 
plain,  of  small  width,  and  generally  very  different  in  charac- 
ter from  that  on  the  Atlantic  side.  In  a  line  along  the  wes- 
tern side  of  the  table-land  and  the  mountains,  there  is  a  con- 
tinued succession  of  volcanoes,  at  various  distances  from  the 


WEST    INDIAN    ISLANDS.  113 

shore,  and  at  various  heights,  on  the  declivity  of  the  table- 
land. It  seems  as  if  a  great  crack  or  fissure  had  been  pro- 
duced in  the  earth's  surface,  along  the  junction  of  the  moun- 
tains and  the  shore,  through  which  the  internal  fire  had  found 
a  vent.  There  are  more  than  20  active  volcanoes  in  succes- 
sion, between  the  10th  and  20th  parallels  of  north  latitude, 
some  higher  than  the  mountains  of  the  central  ridge,  and 
several  subject  to  violent  eruptions. 

The  Colombian  Archipelago,  or  West  Indian  Islands, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  wreck  of  a  submerged  part  of 
the  continent  of  South  and  Central  America,  consists  of  three 
distinct  groups,  namely,  the  Lesser  Antilles,  or  Caribbean 
Islands,  the  Greater  Antilles,  and  the  Bahama  or  Lucay 
Islands.  Some  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  are  flat,  but  their  general 
character  is  bold,  with  a  single  mountain  or  group  of  moun- 
tains in  the  centre,  which  slopes  to  the  sea  all  around,  more 
precipitously  on  the  eastern  side,  which  is  exposed  to  the 
force  of  the  Atlantic  current.  Trinidad  is  the  most  southerly 
of  a  line  of  magnificent  islands,  which  form  a  semicircle,  in- 
closing the  Caribbean  Sea,  with  its  convexity  facing  the  east. 
The  row  is  single  to  the  island  of  Guadaloup,  where  it  splits 
into  two  chains,  known  as  the  Windward  and  Leeward 
Islands.  Trinidad, Tobago, St.  Lucia,  and  Dominica, are  par- 
ticularly mountainous,  and  the  mountains  are  cut  by  deep 
narrow  ravines,  or  gullies,  covered  by  ancient  forests.  The 
volcanic  islands,  which  are  mostly  in  the  single  part  of  the 
chain,  have  conical  mountains  bristled  with  rocks  of  a  still 
more  rugged  form;  but  almost  all  the  islands  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles  have  a  large  portion  of  excellent  vegetable  soil  in  a 
high  state  of  cultivation.  Most  of  them  are  surrounded  by 
coral  reefs,  which  render  navigation  dangerous,  and  there  is 
little  intercourse  between  these  islands,  and  still  less  with 
the  Greater  Antilles,  on  account  of  the  prevailing  winds  and 
currents,  which  make  it  difficult  to  return.  The  Lesser  An- 
tilles terminate  with  the  group  of  the  Virgin  Islands,  which 
are  small  and  flat,  some  only  a  few  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
most  of  them  are  mere  coral  rocks. 

The  four  islands  which  form  the  group  of  the  Greater 
Antilles,  are  the  largest  and  finest  in  the  archipelago. 
Porto  Rico,  Haiti,  and  Jamaica,  separated  from  the  Virgin 
Islands  by  a  narrow  channel,  lie  in  a  line  parallel  to  the 
coast-chain  of  Venezuela,  from  east  to  west ;  while  Cuba, 
10* 


114  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

by  a  serpentine  bend,  separates  the  Giiribbean  Sea,  or  Sea 
of  the  Antilles,  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Porto  Rico  is 
140  miles  long  and  36  broad,  with  wooded  mountains  passing 
through  its  centre  nearly  from  east  to  west,  which  furnish 
abundance  of  water.  There  are  extensive  savannahs  in  the 
interior,  and  very  rich  soil  on  the  northern  coast,  but  the 
climate  is  unhealthy. 

Haiti,  450  miles  long  and  110  broad,  has  a  group  of 
mountains  in  its  centre,  the  highest  of  which  is  9000  feet 
above  the  sea.  Chains  diverge  from  this  nucleus  to  the 
remotest  parts  of  the  island,  so  that  there  is  a  great  propor- 
tion of  high  land.  The  mountains  are  susceptible  of  culti- 
vation nearly  to  the  summits,  and  they  are  clothed  with 
undisturbed  tropical  forests.  The  extensive  plains  are  well 
watered,  and  the  soil  though  not  deep  is  prol:luctive. 

Jamaica,  the  most  valuable  of  the  British  possessions  in 
the  West  Indies,  has  an  area  of  4256  square  miles,  of  which 
110,000  acres  are  cultivated  chiefly  as  sugar-plantations. 
The  principal  chain  of  the  Blue  Mountains  lies  in  the  centre 
of  the  island,  from  east  to  west,  5000  or  6000  feet  above  the 
sea,  with  so  sharp  a  crest  that  in  some  places  it  is  only  four 
yards  across.  The  offsets  from  it  cover  all  the  eastern  })art 
of  the  island  ;  some  of  them  are  7000  feet  high.  The  more 
elevated  ridges  are  flanked  by  lower  ranges,  descending  to 
verdant  savannahs.  The  escarpments  are  wuld,  the  de- 
clivities steep,  and  mingled  with  stately  forests.  The  val- 
leys are  very  narrow,  and  not  more  than  a  twentieth  part  of 
the  island  is  level  ground.  There  are  many  small  rivers, 
and  the  coast-line  is  500  miles  long,  with  at  least  30  good 
harbours.  The  mean  summer  heat  is  80°  of  Fahrenheit, 
and  that  of  w-inter  75°.  The  plains  are  often  unhealthy,  but 
the  air  on  the  mountains  is  salubrious  ;  fever  has  never  pre- 
vailed at  the  elevation  of  2500  feet. 

Cuba,  the  largest  island  in  the  Colombian  Archipelago, 
has  an  area  of  42,212  square  miles,  and  200  miles  of  coast, 
but  so  beset  with  coral  reefs,  sand-banks  and  rocks,  that 
only  a  third  of  it  is  accessible.  Its  mountains,  w^hich  attain 
the  height  of  8000  feet,  occupy  the  centre,  and  fill  the  eas- 
tern part  of  the  island,  in  a  great  longitudinal  line.  No 
.  island  in  these  seas  is  more  important  w^ith  regard  to  situa- 
tion and  natural  productions ;  and  although  much  of  the 
low  ground  is  swampy  and  unhealthy,  there  are  vast  savan- 
nahs, and  about  a  seventh  part  of  the  island  is  cultivated. 


GEOLOGICAL    NOTICE. 


115 


The  Bahama  Islands  are  the  least  valuable  and  least 
interesting  part  of  the  Archipelago.  The  group  consists  of 
about  500  islands,  many  of  them  mere  rocks,  lying  east  from 
Cuba  and  the  coast  of  Florida.  Twelve  are  rather  large, 
and  cultivated  ;  and  though  arid,  they  produce  Campeche 
wood  and  mahogany.  The  most  intricate  labyrinth  of 
shoals  and  reefs,  chiefly  of  corals,  madrepores,  and  sand, 
encompass  these  islands  ;  some  of  them  rise  to  the  surface, 
and  are  adorned  with  groves  of  palm-trees.  The  Great 
Bahama  Island  is  the  first  part  of  the  New  World  on  which 
Columbus   landed  :   the   next  was   Haiti,   where  his  ashes 

rest. 

The  geology  of  Central  America  is  little  known  ;  never- 
theless it  appears,  from  the  confused  mixture  of  table-lands 
and  mountain-chains  in  all  directions,  that  the  subterraneous 
forces  must  have  acted  more  partially  and  irregularly  than 
either  in  South  or  North  America.  Granite,  gneiss,  and 
mica-slate  form  the  substrata  of  the  country  ;  but  the  abun- 
dance of  igneous  rocks  bears  witness  to  strong  volcanic 
action,  both  in  ancient  and  in  modern  times,  which  still 
maintains  its  activity  in  the  volcanic  groups  of  Guatemala 
and  Mexico. 

From  the  identity  of  the  fossil  remains  of  extinct  quad- 
rupeds, there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  West 
Indian  Archipelago  was  once  part  of  South  America,  and 
that  the  rugged  and  tortuous  isthmus  of  Central  America,  and 
the  serpentine  chain  of  islands  winding  from  Cumana  to  the 
peninsula  of  Florida,  are  but  the  shattered  remains  of  an 
unbroken  continent.  The  powerful  volcanic  action  in  Cen- 
tral America  and  Mexico,  the  volcanic  nature  of  many  of 
the  West  Indian  Islands,  and  the  still-existing  fire  in  St. 
Vincent's,  together  with  the  tremendous  earthquakes  to 
which  the  whole  region  is  subject,  render  it  more  than  pro- 
bable that  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are 
one  great  area  of  subsidence,  w^hich  possibly  has  been  in- 
creased by  the  erosion  of  the  Gulf-stream  and  ground-swell 
—  a  temporary  current  of  great  impetuosity,  common  among 
the  W^est  Indian  Islands  from  October  to  May. 

The  subsidence  of  this  extensive  area  must  have  been 
very  great,  since  the  water  is  of  profound  depth  between 
the  islands,  and  it  must  have  taken  place  after  the  destruction 
of  the  great  quadrupeds,  and  consequently  at  a  very  recent 


116  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

geological  period.  The  elevation  of  the  table-land  of  Mexico 
may  have  been  a  contemporaneous  event.  The  action  in 
the  Colombian  Archipelago  is  now,  however,  in  a  contrary- 
direction,  as  the  bed  of  the  ocean  is  rising  there.  The  line 
of  volcanic  islands  begins  with  St.  Vincent's,  and  ends  with 
Guadaloup  ;  the  island  of  St.  Eustasius  in  the  Leeward  range 
is  also  volcanic.  The  Windward  and  Bahama  Islands  are 
of  calcareous  and  coral  rocks.  The  Greater  Antilles  are 
both  crystalline  and  calcareous  in  their  principal  mountain- 
chains,  which  are  all  parallel  to  the  great  chain  of  Vene- 
zuela, with  the  exception  of  Cuba,  where  the  mountains 
diverge  from  a  central  nucleus  to  its  extremities  :  there  is  a 
region  of  serpentine,  rich  in  minerals,  in  one  part  of  the 
island,  with  an  extensive  formation  of  columnar  white 
marble  adjacent  to  it. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

NORTH    AMERICA TABLE-LAND    AND    MOUNTAINS    OF    MEXICO 

THE      ROCKY      MOUNTAINS THE      MARITIME     CHAIN      AND 

MOUNTAINS    OF    RUSSIAN    AMERICA. 

According  to  the  natural  division  of  the  continent.  North 
America  begins  about  the  20th  degree  of  north  latitude,  and 
terminates  in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  is  longer  than  South 
America,  but  the  irregularity  of  its  outline  renders  it  impos- 
sible to  estimate  its  area.  Its  greatest  length  is  about  3100 
miles,  and  its  breadth,  at  the  widest  part,  is  3500  miles. 

The  general  structure  of  North  America  is  still  more 
simple  than  that  of  the  southern  part  of  the  continent.  The 
table-land  of  Mexico  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  are 
the  continuation  of  the  high  land  of  the  Andes,  run  along 
the  western  side,  but  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  Pacific  ; 
and  the  immense  plains  to  the  east  are  divided  longitudinally 
by  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  which  stretch  from  the  Carolinas 
to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  parallel  to  the  Atlantic,  and  at 
no  great  distance  from  it.  Although  the  general  direction 
of  the  two  chains  is  from  south  to  north,  yet,  as  they  maintain 
a  degree  of  parallelism  to   the  two   coasts,  they   diverge 


NORTH    AMERICA. 


117 


towards  the  north,  one  inclining  towards  the  north-west,  and 
the  other  towards  the  north-east.  The  long  narrow  plain 
between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Alleghanies  is  divided, 
throughout  its  length,  by  a  line  of  cliffs  not  more  than  200 
or  300  feet  above  the  Atlantic  plain — the  outcropping  edge 
of  the  Second  Terrace,  or  Atlantic  Slope,  whose  rolling  sur- 
face goes  west  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains. 

An  enormous  table-land  occupies  the  greater  part  of 
Mexico,  or  Anahuac.  It  begins  at  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuan- 
tepec,  and  extends  north-west  to  the  42d  parallel  of  north 
latitude,  a  distance  of  1600  miles,  which  is  nearly  equal 
to  the  distance  from  the  north  extremity  of  Scotland  to  Gib- 
raltar. It  is  narrow  towards  the  south,  but  expands  towards 
the  north-west  till  about  the  latitude  of  the  city  of  Mexico, 
where  it  attains  its  greatest  breadth  of  360  miles,  and  there 
also  it  is  highest.  The  most  easterly  part  in  that  parallel  is 
7500  feet  above  the  sea,  from  whence  it  rises  towards  the 
west  to  the  height  of  9000  feet  at  the  city  of  Mexico,  and 
then  gradually  diminishes  to  4000  feet  towards  the  Pacific. 

Its  height  in  California  is  not  known,  but  it  still  bears  the 
character  of  a  table-land,  and  maintains  an  elevation  of 
6000  feet  along  the  east  side  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  even  to 
the  32d  degree  of  north  latitude,  where  it  sinks  to  a  lower 
level  before  joining  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  descent 
from  this  plateau  to  the  low  lands  is  very  steep  on  all  sides  ; 
on  the  east,  especially,  it  is  so  precipitous  that,  from  a  dis- 
tance, it  is  like  a  range  of  high  mountains.  There  are  only 
two  carriage-roads  to  it  from  the  Mexican  Gulf,  by  passes 
500  miles  asunder:  one  at  Xalapa,  near  Vera  Cruz;  the 
other  at  Santilla,  west  of  Monterey.  The  descent  to  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific  is  almost  equally  rapid,  and  that  to  the 
south  no  less  so,  where,  for  300  miles  between  the  plains  of 
Tehuantepec  and  the  Rio  Yapez,  it  presses  on  the  shores  of 
the  Pacific,  and  terminates  in  high  mountains,  leaving  only 
a  narrow  margin  of  hilly  maritime  coast.  Where  the  surface 
of  the  table-land  is  not  traversed  by  mountains  it  is  as  level 
as  the  ocean.  There  is  a  carriage-road  over  it  for  1500 
miles,  without  hills,  from  the  city  of  Mexico  to  Sante  Fe. 

The  southern  part  of  the  plateau  is  divided  into  four  parts, 
or  distinct  plains,  surrounded  by  hills  from  500  to  1000  feet 
high.  In  one  of  these,  the  plain  of  Tolesco,  on  a  small 
group  of  islands  near  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Lake  Tetzcuco, 


118  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

and  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  porphyritic  mountains,  stands 
the  city  of  Mexico,  once  the  capital  of  the  empire  of  Mon- 
tezuma, which  must  have  far  surpassed  the  modern  city  in 
extent  and  splendour,  as  many  remains  of  its  ancient  glory 
testify.  It  is  9000  feet  above  the  sea,  which  is  the  height 
of  Mount  St.  Bernard. 

One  of  the  singular  crevices  through  which  the  internal 
fire  finds  a  vent  stretches  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the 
Pacific,  directly  across  the  table-land,  in  a  line  about  16 
miles  south  of  the  city  of  Mexico.  A  very  remarkable  row  of 
active  volcanoes  occurs  along  this  parallel.  Turtia,  the  most 
eastern  of  them,  is  in  the  95th  degree  west  longitude,  near 
the  Mexican  Gulf,  in  a  low  range  of  wooded  hills.  More 
to  the  west  the  snow-shrouded  cone  of  Orizabo  is  17,000 
feet  high  ;  and  its  ever-fiery  crater,  seen  like  a  star  in  the 
darkness  of  the  night,  has  obtained  it  the  name  of  Citlalte- 
petel,  the  "  Mountain  of  the  Star."  Popocatepetl,  the 
loftiest  mountain  in  Mexico,  17,884  feet  above  the  sea,  lies 
still  farther  west,  and  is  in  a  state  of  constant  eruption.  A 
chain  of  smaller  volcanoes  unites  the  three.  On  the  western 
slope  of  the  table-land,  36  leagues  from  the  Pacific,  stands 
the  volcanic  cone  of  Jorullo,  on  a  plain  2890  feet  above  the 
sea.  It  suddenly  appeared  and  rose  1683  feet  above  the 
plain  on  the  night  of  the  29th  of  September,  1759.  The 
great  cone  of  Colima,  the  last  of  this  volcanic  series,  stands 
insulated  in  the  plain  of  that  name,  between  the  western 
declivity  of  the  table-land  and  the  Pacific. 

A  high  range  of  mountains  extends  along  the  eastern 
margin  of  the  table-land  to  Real  de  Catorce,  and  the  surface 
of  the  high  plain  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Sierra 
Madre,  which  begins  at  21  degrees  north  latitude  ;  and, 
after  going  north  about  60  miles,  its  continuity  is  broken 
into  the  insulated  ridges  of  the  Sierra  Altamina,  and  the 
group  containing  the  mines  of  Zacatecas ;  it  soon  after 
resumes  its  character  of  a  regular  chain,  and,  with  a  breadth 
of  100  miles,  proceeds  in  parallel  ridges  and  longitudinal 
valleys  to  New  Mexico,  where  it  skirts  both  banks  of  the 
Rio  Bravo  del  Norte,  and  joins  the  Sierra  Verde,  the  most 
southern  part  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  40  degrees  north 
latitude. 

To  the  south  some  points  of  the  Sierra  Madre  are  said  to 
be  10,000  feet  high,  and   4000  above  their  base  ;  and  be- 


THE    ROCKY    MOUNTAINS.  119 

tween  the  parallels  of  36  and  42  degrees,  where  the  chain 
is  the  watershed  between  the  Rio  Colorado  and  the  Rio 
Bravo  del  Norte,  they  are  still  higher,  and  perpetually 
covered  with  snow.  The  mountains  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
last-mentioned  river  are  the  eastern  ridges  of  the  Sierra 
Madre,  and  contain  the  sources  of  the  innumerable  affluents 
of  the  Missouri  and  other  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Missis- 
sippi and  Mexican  Gulf. 

Deep  cavities,  called  Barancas,  are  a  characteristic  feature 
of  the  table-lands  of  Mexico.  They  are  long  narrow  rents 
two  or  three  miles  in  breadth,  and  many  more  in  length, 
often  descending  1000  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  plain, 
with  a  brook  or  the  tributary  of  some  river  flowing  through 
them.  Their  sides  are  precipitous  and  rugged,  with  over- 
hanging rocks  covered  with  large  trees.  The  intense  heat 
adds  to  the  contrast  between  these  hollows  and  the  bare 
plains,  where  the  air  is  more  than  cool. 

Vegetation  varies  with  the  elevation  :  consequently  the 
splendour  which  adorns  the  low  lands  vanishes  on  the  high 
plains,  which,  though  producing  much  grain  and  pasture, 
are  often  saline,  sterile,  and  treeless,  except  in  some  places, 
where  oaks  grow  to  an  enormous  size  free  of  underwood. 

The  Rocky  Mountains  run  1500  miles,  in  two  parallel 
chains,  from  the  Sierra  Verde  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie 
River,  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  sometimes  united  by  a  transverse 
ridge.  In  some  places  the  eastern  range  rises  to  the  snow- 
line, and  even  far  above  it,  as  in  Mounts  Hooper  and 
Brown,  15,590  and  16,000  feet  above  the  sea;  but  the 
general  elevation  is  only  above  the  line  of  trees.  The  west- 
ern range  is  not  so  high  till  north  of  the  55th  parallel,  where 
both  ranges  are  of  the  same  height,  and  frequently  higher 
than  the  snow-line.  They  are  generally  barren,  though  the 
transverse  valleys  have  fertile  spots  with  grass,  and  some- 
times trees.  The  long  valley  betw^een  the  two  rows  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  which  is  100  miles  wide,  must  have  con- 
siderable elevation  in  the  south,  since  the  tributaries  of  the 
Colombia  River  descend  from  it  in  a  series  of  rapids  and 
cataracts  for  nearly  100  miles  ;  and  it  is  probably  still  higher 
towards  the  sources  of  the  Peace  River,  where  the  moun- 
tains, only  1500  feet  above  it,  are  perpetually  covered  with 
snow.  The  Sierra  Verde  is  670  miles  from  the  Pacific  ; 
but,  as  the  coast  trends  due  north  to  the  Sound  of  Juan  de 


120  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Fuca,  the  western  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  maintains 
a  distance  of  38i)  miles  from  the  ocean,  from  that  point  to 
the  latitude  of  Behring's  Bay  in  60  degrees  north  latitude. 

Offsets  from  the  Sierra  Mad  re,  and  the  volcanic  group  of 
Castres  Virgines,  fill  the  peninsula  of  California,  from 
whence,  to  the  Sound  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  the  Pacific  is  bor- 
dered by  snow-clad  mountains.  Prairies  extend  between 
this  coast-chain  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  from  California  to 
north  of  the  Oregon  River.  The  Oregon  coast  for  200  miles 
is  a  mass  of  undisturbed  forest-thickets  and  marshes,  and 
north  from  it,  \vith  few  exceptions,  is  a  mountainous  region 
of  bold  aspect,  often  reaching  above  the  snow-line.  The 
maritime  chain  of  Russian  America,  of  a  still  more  Alpine 
character,  runs  due  north  to  60  degrees  of  north  latitude, 
w^here  Mount  Elias  rises  to  17,000  feet.  The  branch  which 
runs  westward  to  Bristol  Bay  has  many  active  volcanoes, 
and  so  has  that  which  fills  the  promontory  of  Alaska. 

The  archipelagos  and  islands  along  the  coast,  from  Cali- 
fornia to  the  promontory  of  Alaska,  have  the  same  bold 
character  as  the  mainland,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  tops 
of  a  submarine  chain  of  table-lands  and  mountains,  which 
constitute  the  most  westerly  ridge  of  the  maritime  chains. 
Prince  of  Wales's  Archipelago  contains  seven  active  vol- 
canoes. 

The  mountains  on  the  coasts  of  the  Pacific,  and  the  islands, 
are,  in  many  places,  covered  with  colossal  forests,  but  wide 
tracts  in  the  south  are  sandy  deserts. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

NORTH  AMERICA  [continued). — THE  GREAT  CENTRAL  PLAINS  OR 

VALLEY  OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI THE  ALLEGHANY  MOUNTAINS- 

THE    ATLANTIC    SLOPE THE  ATLANTIC     PLAIN — GEOLOGICAL 

NOTICE. 

The  great  central  plain  of  North  America,  lying  between 
the  Rocky  and  Alleghany  Mountains,  and  reaching  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  includes  the  valleys  of 
the  Mississippi,  St.  Lawrence,  Nelson,  Churchill,  and  most 


VALLEY    OF    THE    MISSISSIPPI.  121 

of  those  of  the  Missouri,  Mackenzie's,  and  Coppermine 
rivers.  It  has  an  area  of  3,240,000  square  miles,  which  is 
240,000  square  miles  more  than  the  central  plain  of  South 
America,  and  about  half  the  size  of  the  great  plain  of  the 
Old  Continent,  which  is  less  fertile  ;  for,  although  the  whok- 
of  America  is  not  more  than  half  the  size  of  the  Old  Conti- 
nent, it  contains  at  least  as  much  productive  soil. 

This  plain,  5000  miles  long,  becomes  wider  towards  the 
north,  and  has  no  elevations,  except  a  low  table-land  which 
crosses  it  at  the  line  of  the  Canadian  lakes  and  the  sources 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  is  nowhere  above  1500  feet  high,  and 
rarely  more  than  700.  The  character  of  the  plain  is  that  of 
perfect  uniformity,  rising  by  a  gentle  regular  ascent  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  which 
river  is  the  great  feature  of  the  North  American  low  lands. 
The  ground  rises  in  the  same  equable  manner  from  the  right 
bank  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
but  its  ascent  from  the  left  bank  to  the  Alleghanies  is  broken 
into  hill  and  dale,  containing  the  most  fertile  territory  in  the 
United  States.  Under  so  wide  a  range  of  latitude  the  plain 
embraces  a  great  variety  of  soil,  climate,  and  productions  ; 
but,  being  almost  in  a  sta'te  of  nature,  it  is  characterized  in  its 
middle  and  southern  parts  by  interminable  grassy  savannahs, 
or  prairies,  and  enormous  forests  ;  and  in  the  far  north  by 
deserts  which  rival  those  of  Siberia  in  dreariness. 

In  the  south  a  sandy  desert,  400  or  500  miles  wide, 
stretches  along  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  4lst 
degree  N.  lat.  The  dry  plains  of  Texas  and  the  upper  re- 
gio^n  of  the  Arkansas  have  all  the  characteristics  of  Asiatic 
table-lands  ;  more  to  the  north  the  bare,  treeless  steppes  on 
the  high  grounds  of  the  far  west  are  burnt  up  in  summer,  and 
frozen  in  winter  by  biting  blasts  from  the  Rocky  Mountains; 
but  the  soil  improves  towards  the  Mississippi.  At  its  mouth, 
indeed,  there  are  marshes  which  cover  35,000  square  miles, 
bearing  a  rank  vegetation,  and  its  delta  is  a  labyrinth  of 
streams  and  lakes,  with  dense  brushwood.  There  are  also 
large  tracts  of  forest  and  saline  ground,  but  all  the  cultiva- 
tion on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  is  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  in  the  adjacent  provinces,  and  is  entirely  tropical,  con- 
sisting of  sugar-cane,  cotton,  and  indigo.  The  prairies,  so 
characteristic  of  North  America,  then  begin. 

To  the  left  of  the  Mississippi  these  savannahs  are  some- 
11 


122  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

times  rolling,  but  oftener  level  and  interminable  as  the  ocean, 
covered  wi^h  long  rank  grass  of  tender  green,  blended  with 
flowers  chiefly  of  the  liliaceous  kind,  which  fill  the  air  with 
their  fragrance.  In  the  southern  districts  they  are  sometimes 
interspersed  with  groups  of  magnolia,  tulip  and  cotton-trees, 
and  in  the  north,  oaks  and  black  walnut.  These  are  rare 
occurrences,  as  the  prairies  may  be  traversed  for  many  days 
without  finding  a  shrub,  except  on  the  banks  of  the  streams, 
which  are  beautifully  fringed  with  myrtle,  azalea,  kalmea, 
andromeda,  and  rhododendron.  On  the  wide  plains  the 
only  objects  to  be  seen  are  countless  herds  of  wild  horses, 
buflaloes  and  deer.  The  country  assumes  a  more  severe  as- 
pect in  higher  latitudes.  It  is  still  capable  of  producing  rye 
and  barley  in  the  territories  of  the  Assinniboines,  and  round 
Lake  Winnepeg  there  are  great  forests;  a  low  vegetation, 
with  grass,  follows,  and  towards  the  Icy  Ocean  the  land  is 
barren  and  covered  with  numerous  lakes. 

East  of  the  Mississippi  there  is  a  magnificent  undulating 
country  about  300  miles  broad,  extending  1000  miles  from 
south  to  north  between  that  great  river  and  the  Alleghany 
Mountains,  mostly  covered  with  trees.  When  America  was 
discovered,  one  uninterrupted  forest  spread  over  the  country 
from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Canadian  lakes  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  it  crossed  the 
Alleghany  Mountains,  descended  into  the  valley  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi on  the  north,  but  in  the  south  it  crossed  the  main 
stream  of  that  river  altogether,  forming  an  ocean  of  vegeta- 
tion of  more  than  1,000,000  square  miles,  of  which  the 
greater  part  still  remains.  Although  forests  occupy  so  much 
of  the  country,  there  are  immense  prairies  on  the  east  side 
of  the  river  also.  Pine-barrens,  stretching  far  into  the  inte- 
rior, occupy  the  whole  coast  of  the  Mexican  Gulf  eastward 
from  the  Pearl  River,  through  Alabama  and  a  great  part  of 
Florida. 

These  vast  monotonous  tracts  of  sand,  covered  with  forests 
of  gigantic  pine-trees,  are  as  peculiarly  a  distinctive  feature 
of  the  continent  of  North  America  as  the  prairies,  and  are 
not  confined  to  this  part  of  the  United  States;  they  occur  to 
a  great  extent  in  North  Carolina,  Virginia,  and  elsewhere. 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  though  much  cleared,  still  pos- 
sess large  forests,  and  the  Ohio  flows  for  hundreds  of  miles 
among  magnificent  trees,  with  an  undergrowth  of  azaleas. 


CANADIAN    FORESTS.  123 

rhododendrons,  and  other  beautiful  shrubs,  matted  together 
by  creeping  plants.  There  the  American  forests  appear  in 
all  their  glory,  the  gigantic  deciduous  cypress,  and  the  tall 
tulip-tree,  overtopping  the  forest  by  half  its  height,  a  variety 
of  noble  oaks,  black  walnuts,  ximerican  plane,  hiccory,  sugar- 
maple,  and  the  lyriodendron,  the  most  splendid  of  the  mag- 
nolia tribe,  the  pride  of  the  forest. 

The  Illinois  waters  a  country  of  prairies  ever  fresh  and 
green,  and  five  new  states  are  rising  round  the  great  lakes, 
whose  territory  of  280,000  square  miles  contains  180,000,000 
acres  of  land,  of  excellent  quality.  These  states,  still  mostly 
covered  with  wood,  lie  between  the  lakes  and  the  Ohio,  and 
they  reach  from  the  United  States  to  the  Upper  Mississippi 
— a  country  twice  as  large  as  France,  and  six  times  the  size 
of  England. 

The  quantity  of  water,  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  cen- 
tral plain,  greatly  preponderates  over  that  of  the  land  ;  the 
five  principal  lakes,  Huron,  Superior,  Michigan,  Erie,  and 
Ontario,  cover  an  area  equal  to  Great  Britain,  without  reck- 
oning small  lakes  and  rivers  innumerable. 

The  Canadas  contain  millions  of  acres  of  good  soil,  covered 
with  immense  fore^sts.  Upper  Canada  is  the  most  fertile,  and 
in  many  respects  Is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  British 
colonies  in  the  west:  every  European  grain,  and  every  plant 
that  requires  a  hot  summer,  and  can  endure  a  cold  winter, 
thrives  there.  The  ibrests  consist  chiefly  of  black  and  white 
spruce,  the  Weymouth  and  other  pines — trees  which  do  not 
admit  of  undergrowth:  they  grow  to  great  height,  like  bare 
spars,  with  a  tufted  crown,  casting  a  deep  gloom  below. 
The  fall  of  large  trees  from  age  is  a  common  occurrence,  and 
not  without  danger,  as  it  often  causes  the  destruction  of  those 
adjacent,  and  an  ice-storm  is  awful. 

After  a  heavy  fall  of  snow,  succeeded  by  rain  and  a  par- 
tial thaw,  a  stronof  frost  coats  the  trees  and  all  their  branches 
with  transparent  ice,  often  an  inch  thick:  the  noblest  trees 
bend  iander  the  load,  icicles  hang  from  every  bough,  which 
come  down  in  showers  with  the  least  breath  of  wind.  The 
hemlock-spruce  especially,  with  its  long  drooping  branches, 
is  then  like  a  solid  mass.  If  the  wind  freshens,  the  smaller 
trees  become  like  corn  beaten  down  by  the  tempest,  while 
the  large  ones  swing-  heavily  in  the  breeze.  The  forest  at 
last  gives  way  under  its  load :  tree  comes  down  after  tree 


124  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

with  sudden  and  terrific  violence,  crushing  all  before  them, 
till  the  whole  is  one  wide  uproar,  heard  from  afar  like  suc- 
cessive discharges  of  artillery.  Nothing,  however,  can  be 
imagined  more  brilliant  and  beautiful  than  the  effect  of  sun- 
shine in  a  calm  day  on  the  frozen  boughs,  where  every  par- 
ticle of  the  icy  crystals  sparkles,  and  nature  seems  decked  in 
diamonds.* 

Although  the  subsoil  is  perpetually  frozen  at  the  depth  of 
a  few  feet  below  the  surface,  beyond  the  56th  degree  of  north 
latitude,  yet  trees  grow  in  some  places  up  to  the  64th  parallel. 
Farther  north,  the  gloomy  and  majestic  forests  cease,  and  are 
succeeded  by  a  bleak,  barren  waste,  which  becomes  progres- 
sively more  dreary  as  it  approaches  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Four- 
fifths  of  it  are  like  the  wilds  of  Siberia  in  surface  and  climate, 
covered  many  months  in  the  year  with  deep  snow.  During 
the  summer  it  is  the  resort  of  herds  of  rein-deer  and  buffaloes, 
which  come  from  the  south  to  browse  on  the  tender  shore 
grass  which  then  springs  up  along  the  streams  and  lakes. 

The  Alleghany  or  Appalachian  chain,  which  constitutes 
the  second  or  subordinate  system  of  North  American  moun- 
tains, separates  the  great  central  plain  from  that  which  lies 
along  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Its  base  is  a  strip  of  table-land 
from  1000  to  3000  feet  high,  lying  between  the  sources  of 
the  rivers  Alabama  and  Yazan,  in  the  southern  states  of  the 
Union,  and  New  Brunswick,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  St. 
Lawrence.  This  high  land  is  traversed  throughout  1000 
miles,  between  Alabama  and  Vermont,  by  from  three  to  five 
parallel  ridges  of  low  mountains  rarely  more  than  3000  or 
4000  feet  high,  and  separated  by  fertile  longitudinal  valleys, 
which  occupy  more  than  two-thirds  of  its  breadth  of  100 
miles.  In  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania,  the  only  part  of  the 
chain  to  which  the  name  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  pro- 
perly belongs,  it  is  150  miles  broad;  and  the  whole  is  com- 
puted to  have  an  area  of  2,000,000  square  miles.  The  pa- 
rallelism of  the  ridges,  and  the  uniform  level  of  their  summits, 
are  the  characteristics  of  this  chain,  which  is  lower  and  less 
wild  than  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  uniformity  of  outline 
in  the  southern  and  middle  parts  of  the  chain  is  very  remark- 
able, and  results  from  their  peculiar  structure. f  These  moun- 
tains have  no  central  axis,  but  consist  of  a  series  of  convex 

•   Mr.  Taylor.  f  Mr,  Lyell's  America. 


ALLEGHANY  MOUNTAINS.  125 

and  concave  flexures,  forming  alternate  hills  and  longitudinal 
valleys,  running  nearly  parallel  throughout  their  length,  and 
cut  transversely  by  the  rivers  that  flow  to  the  Atlantic  on  one 
hand,  and  to  the  Mississippi  on  the  other.  The  water-shed 
nearly  follows  the  windings  of  the  coast,  from  the  point  of 
Florida  to  the  north-western  extremity  of  the  State  of  Maine. 

The  picturesque  and  peaceful  scenery  of  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  is  well  known  ;  they  are  generally  clothed  with 
a  luxuriant  and  varied  vegetation,  and  their  western  slope  is 
considered  one  of  the  finest  countries  in  the  United  States. 
To  the  south  they  maintain  a  distance  of  200  miles  from  the 
Atlantic,  but  approach  close  to  the  coast  in  the  south-eastern 
part  of  the  state  of  New  York,  from  whence  their  general 
course  is  northerly  to  the  river  St.  Lawrence.  They  fill  the 
Canadas,  Maine,  New  Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia  with 
branches  as  high  as  the  mean  elevation  of  the  principal 
chain,  and  extend  even  to  the  dreary  regions  of  Baffin's 
Bay.  Not  only  the  deep  forests,  but  vegetation  in  general, 
diminish  as  the  latitude  increases,  till  on  the  Arctic  shores 
the  soil  becomes  incapable  of  culture,  and  the  majestic  forest 
is  superseded  by  the  Arctic  birch  which  creeps  on  the 
ground.  The  islands  along  the  north-eastern  coasts  have 
more  than  the  mildness  of  the  main-land.  Though  little 
favoured  b}  nature,  many  of  them  produce  flax  and  timber  ; 
and  Newfoundland,  as  large  as  England  and  Wales,  main- 
tains a  population  of  70,000  souls  by  its  fisheries  ;  it  is 
nearer  to  Britain  than  any  part  of  America — the  distance 
from  the  port  of  St.  John  to  the  harbour  of  Valentia  in  Ireland 
is  only  1655  nautical  miles. 

The  long  and  comparatively  narrow  plain  which  lies 
between  the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  the  Atlantic,  ex- 
tends from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  eastern  coast  of  Massa- 
chusetts. At  its  southern  extremity  it  joins  the  plain  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  gradually  becomes  narrower  in  its  northern 
course  to  New  England,  where  it  merely  includes  the  coast 
islands.  It  is  divided  throughout  its  length  by  a  line  of 
cliffs  from  200  to  300  feet  high,  which  begins  in  Alabama, 
and  ends  in  the  coast  of  Massachusetts.  This  escarpment  is 
the  eastern  edge  of  the  terrace  known  as  the  Atlantic  Slope, 
w^hich  rises  above  the  Maritime  or  Atlantic  Plain,  and  undu- 
lates westward  to  the  foot  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  the  most 
eastern  ridge  of  the  Appalachian  Chain.  It  is  narrow  at  its 
11* 


126  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

extremities  in  Alabama  and  New  York,  but  in  Virginia  and 
the  Carolinas  it  is  200  miles  wide.  The  surface  of  the  slope 
is  of  great  uniformity  ;  ridges  of  hills  and  long  valleys  run 
along  it  parallel  to  the  mountains,  close  to  which  it  is  600 
feet  hiofh.  It  is  rich  in  soil  and  cultivation,  and  has  an 
immense  water-power  in  the  streams  and  rivers  flowing  from 
the  mountains  across  it,  which  are  precipitated  over  its  rocky 
edge  to  the  plains  on  the  west.  More  than  twenty-three 
rivers  of  considerable  size  fall  in  cascades  down  this  ledge 
between  New  York  and  the  Mississippi,  affording  scenes  of 
great  beauty. 

Both  land  and  water  assume  a  new  aspect  on  the  Atlantic 
Plain.  The  rivers,  after  dashing  over  the  rocky  barrier,  run 
in  tranquil  streams  to  the  ocean,  and  the  plain  itself  is  a 
monotonous  level,  not  more  than  a  hundred  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  sea.  Along  the  coast  it  is  scooped  into  valleys 
and  ravines,  with  innumerable  creeks. 

The  greater  part  of  the  magnificent  countries  east  of  the 
Allephanies  is  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation  and  commercial 
prosperity,  with  natural  advantages  not  surpassed  in  any 
country.  Nature,  however,  still  maintains  her  sway  in  some 
parts,  especially  where  pine-barrens  and  swamps  prevail. 
The  territory  of  the  United  States  occupies  7,000,000  or 
8,000,000  square  miles,  the  greater  part  of  it  capable  of  pro- 
ducing every  thing  that  is  useful  to  man,  but  not  more  than 
the  twenty-sixth  part  of  it  has  been  cleared  ;  the  climate  is 
healthy,  the  soil  fertile,  abounding  in  mineral  treasures,  and 
it  possesses  every  advantage  from  navigable  rivers  and 
excellent  harbours.  The  outposts  of  civilization  have  al- 
ready advanced  half  way  to  the  Pacific,  and  the  tide  of 
white  men  is  continually  and  irresistibly  pressing  onwards 
to  the  ultimate  extinction  of  the  original  proprietors  of  the 
soil — a  melancholy,  but  not  a  solitary  instance  of  the  rapid 
extinction  of  a  whole  race. 

Crystalline  and  silurian  rocks,  rich  in  precious  and  other 
metals,  form  the  substratum  of  Mexico,  for  the  most  part 
deeply  covered  with  plutonic  and  volcanic  formations  and 
secondary  limestone  ;  yet  granite  comes  to  the  surface  on 
the  coast  of  Acapulca,  and  occasionally  on  the  plains  and 
mountains  of  the  table-land.  The  Rocky  Mountains  are 
mostly  silurian,  except  the  eastern  ridge  which  is  of  strati- 
fied crystalline  rocks,  amygdaloid  and  ancient  volcanic  pro- 


GEOLOGICAL    NOTICE.  127 

ductlons.  The  coast-chain  has  the  same  character,  with 
immense  tracts  of  volcanic  rocks,  both  ancient  and  modern, 
especially  obsidian,  which  is  nowhere  developed  on  a  greater 
scale,  except  in  Mexico  and  the  Andes. 

In  North  America,  as  in  the  southern  part  of  the  continent, 
volcanic  action  is  entirely  confined  to  the  coast  and  highland 
along  the  Pacific.  The  numerous  vents  in  Mexico  and 
California  are  often  in  great  activity,  and  hot  springs  abound. 
Though  a  considerable  interval  occurs  north  of  these,  where 
the  fire  is  dormant,  the  country  is  full  of  igneous  produc- 
tions, and  it  again  finds  vent  in  Prince  of  Wales's  Island, 
which  has  seven  active  volcanoes.  From  Mount  St.  Elias 
westward  through  the  whole  southern  coast  of  the  peninsula 
of  Russian  America  and  the  Aleutian  Islands,  which  form  a 
semicircle  between  Cape  Alaska,  in  America,  and  the  penin- 
sula of  Kamschatka,  volcanic  vents  occur,  and  in  the  latter 
peninsula  there  are  three  of  great  height. 

From  the  similar  nature  of  the  coasts,  and  the  identity  of 
the  fossil  mammalia  on  each  side  of  Behring's  Strait,  it  is 
more  than  probable  that  the  two  continents  were  united  even 
since  the  sea  was  inhabited  by  the  existing  species  of  shell- 
fish. Some  of  the  gigantic  quadrupeds  of  the  Old  Continent 
are  supposed  to  have  crossed  either  over  the  land  or  over  the 
ice  to  America,  and  to  have  wandered  southward  through 
the  longitudinal  valleys  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  Mexico, 
and  Central  America,  and  to  have  spread  over  the  vast 
plains  of  both  continents,  even  to  their  utmost  extremity. 
An  extinct  species  of  horse,  the  mastodon,  a  species  of  ele- 
phant, three  gigantic  edentata,  and  a  hollow-horned  rumi- 
nating animal,  roamed  over  the  pampas  of  the  southern  conti- 
nent, and  the  prairies  of  the  northern  ;  certainly  since  the  sea 
waspeopledby  its  present  inhabitants,  probably  even  since  the 
existence  of  the  Indians.  The  skeletons  of  these  creatures 
are  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  saline  marshes  on  the 
prairies  called  the  Licks,  which  are  still  the  resort  of  the 
existing  races. 

There  were,  however,  various  animals  peculiar  to  America, 
as  well  as  to  each  part  of  that  continent,  at  least  as  far  as 
yet  known.  South  America  still  retains  in  many  cases  the 
type  of  its  ancient  inhabitants,  though  on  a  very  reduced 
scale.  But  on  the  Patagonian  plains  and  on  the  pampas 
skeletons  of  creatures  of  gigantic  size  and  anomalous  forms 


128  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

have  been  found  ;  one  like  an  ant-eater  of  great  magnitude, 
covered  with  a  prodigious  coat  of  mail  similar  to  that  of  the 
armadillo;  others  like  gigantic  rats  or  mice,  perhaps  the 
largest  animals  yet  discovered, — all  of  which  had  lived  on 
vegetables,  and  had  existed  at  the  same  time  with  those 
already  mentioned.  These  animals  were  not  destroyed  by 
the  agency  of  man,  since  creatures  not  larger  than  a  rat 
vanished  from  Brazil  within  the  same  period. 

The  geological  outline  of  the  United  States,  the  Canadas, 
and  all  the  country  to  the  Polar  Ocean,  though  highly 
interesting  in  itself,  becomes  infinitely  more  so  when  viewed 
in  connection  with  that  of  northern  and  middle  Europe.  A 
remarkable  analogy  exists  in  the  structure  of  the  land  on 
each  side  of  the  north  Atlantic  basin.  Gneiss,  mica-schist, 
and  occasional  granite,  prevail  over  wide  areas  in  the  AUe- 
ghanies,  on  the  Atlantic  slope,  and  still  more  in  the  northern 
latitudes  of  the  American  continent  ;  and  they  range  also 
through  the  greater  part  of  Scandinavia,  Finland,  and  Lap- 
land. In  the  latter  countries,  and  in  the  more  northern 
parts  of  America,  Mr.  Lyell  has  observed  that  the  fossili- 
ferous  rocks  belong  either  to  the  most  ancient  or  to  the 
newest  formation,  to  the  Silurian  strata,  or  to  such  as  contain 
shells  of  recent  species  only,  no  intermediate  formation  ap- 
pearing through  immense  regions.  Silurian  strata  extend 
over  2000  miles  in  the  middle  and  high  latitudes  of  North 
America;  they  occupy  a  tract  nearly  as  great  between  the 
most  westerly  headlands  of  Norway  and  those  that  separate 
the  White  Sea  from  the  Polar  Ocean  ;  and  Sir  Roderick 
Murchison  has  traced  them  through  central  and  eastern 
Europe,  and  the  Ural  Mountains,  even  to  Siberia.  Through- 
out these  vast  regions,  both  in  America  and  Europe,  the 
Silurian  strata  are  followed  in  ascending  order  by  the  De- 
vonian and  carboniferous  formations,  which  are  developed 
on  a  stupendous  scale  in  the  United  States,  chiefly  in  the 
Alleghany  Mountains  and  on  the  Atlantic  slope.  The 
Devonian  and  carboniferous  strata  together  are  a  mile  and  a 
half  thick  in  New  York,  and  three  times  as  much  in  Penn- 
sylvania, where  one  single  coal-field  occupies  63,000  square 
miles  between  the  northern  limits  of  that  State  and  Alabama. 
There  are  many  others  of  great  magnitude,  both  in  the 
States  and  to  the  north  of  them,  so  that  the  most  valuable 
of  all  minerals  is  here  inexhaustible,  which  is  not  the  least 


GREENLAND.  129 

of  the  many  advantages  enjoyed  by  that  flourishing  country. 
The  coal  formation  is  also  developed  in  New  Brunswick, 
and  traces  of  it  are  found  on  the  shores  and  in  the  islands 
of  the  Polar  Ocean,  on  the  east  coast  of  Greenland,  and  even 
in  Spitzbergen. 

Vast  carboniferous  basins  exist  in  Belgium  above  the  Silu- 
rian strata  ;  and  a  great  portion  of  Britain  is  perfectly  simi- 
lar in  structure  to  North  America.  The  Silurian  rocks  in 
many  instances  are  the  same  ;  and  the  coal-fields  of  New 
England  are  precisely  similar  to  those  in  Wales,  3000  miles 
off.  It  would  be  difficult  to  estimate  the  quantity  of  coal  in 
Britain  and  Ireland,  but  there  is  probably  enough  to  last  for 
some  thousand  years.  If  science  continues  to  advance  as  it 
has  lately  done,  a  substitute  will  in  all  probability  be  dis- 
covered before  the  coal  is  exhausted. 

In  all  the  more  northern  countries  that  have  been  men- 
tioned, so  very  distant  from  one -another,  the  general  range 
of  the  rocks  is  from  north-east  to  south-west  ;  and  in  north- 
ern Europe,  the  British  isles,  and  North  America,  great  lakes 
are  formed  along  thejunction  of  the  strata,  the  whole  analogy 
affording  a  proof  of  the  wide  diffusion  of  the  same  geological 
conditions  in  the  northern  regions  at  a  very  remote  period. 
At  a  later  time  those  erratic  blocks,  which  are  now  scattered 
over  the  higher  latitudes  of  both  continents,  were  most  likely 
brought  from  the  north  by  drift  ice  or  currents,  while  the  land 
was  still  covered  by  the  deep.  Volcanic  agency  has  not 
been  wanting  to  complete  the  analogy.  The  Silurian  and 
overlying  strata  have  been  pierced  in  m.any  places  by  trap- 
pean  rocks  in  both  continents,  and  they  appear  also  in  the 
islands  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  Polar  Seas.  Even  now 
the  volcanic  fires  are  in  great  activity  in  the  very  centre  of 
that  basin  in  Iceland,  and  in  the  very  distant  and  less  known 
island  of  Jan  Mayen's  Land. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


GREENLAND SPITZBERGEN ICELAND JAN  MAYEn's  LAND 

ANTARCTIC  LANDS VICTORIA  CONTINENT. 

Greenland,  the  most  extensive  of  the  Arctic  lands,  begins 
with  the  lofty  promontory  of  Cape  Farewell,  the  southern 


130  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

extremity  of  a  group  of  rocky  islands,  which  are  separated 
by  a  channel  five  miles  wide  from  a  table-land  of  appalling 
aspect,  narrow  to  the  south,  but  increasing  in  breadth 
northward  to  a  distance  of  which  only  1300  miles  are 
know^n.  This  table-land  is  bounded  by  mountains  rising 
from  the  deep  in  mural  precipices,  which  terminate  in  needles 
and  pyramids,  or  in  parallel  terraces  of  alternate  snow  and 
bare  rock,  occasionally  leaving  a  narrow  shore.  The  coat- 
ing of  ice  is  so  continuous  and  thick  that  the  surface  of  the 
table-land  may  be  regarded  as  one  enormous  glacier,  which 
overlaps  the  rocky  edges  and  dips  between  the  mountain 
peaks  into  the  sea. 

The  coasts  are  beset  with  rocky  islands,  and  cloven  by 
fiords  which,  in  some  instances,  wind  like  rivers  for  100 
miles  into  the  interior.  These  deep  inlets  of  the  sea,  now 
sparkling  in  sunshine,  now  shaded  in  gloom,  are  hemmed 
in  by  walls  of  rock  often  2000  feet  high,  whose  summits  are 
hid  in  the  clouds.  They  generally  terminate  in  glaciers, 
which  are  sometimes  forced  on  by  the  pressure  of  the  upper 
ice  plains  till  they  fill  the  fiord  and  even  project  far  into  the 
sea  like  bold  headlands,  w'hen,  undermined  by  the  surge, 
huge  masses  of  ice  fall  from  them  with  a  crash  like  thunder, 
making  the  sea  boil.  These  icebergs,  carried  by  currents, 
are  stranded  on  the  Arctic  coast,  or  are  driven  into  lower 
latitudes.  The  ice  is  very  transparent  and  compact  in  the 
Arctic  regions  :  its  prevailing  lints  are  blue,  green,  and 
orange,  which,  contrasted  with  the  dazzling  whiteness  of  the 
snow  and  the  gloomy  hue  of  the  rocks,  produce  a  striking 
effect. 

A  great  fiord  in  the  68th  parallel  of  latitude  is  supposed 
to  extend  completely  across  the  table-land,  dividing  the 
country  into  south  and  north  Greenland,  which  last  extends 
indefinitely  towards  the  pole,  but  it  is  altogether  inaccessible 
from  the  frozen  sea  and  the  iron-bound  shore,  so  that,  ex- 
cepting a  very  small  portion  of  the  coast,  it  is  an  unknown 
region. 

In  some  sheltered  spots  in  south  Greenland,  especially 
along  the  borders  of  the  fiords,  there  are  meadows  where 
the  service-tree  bears  fruit  ;  beech  and  willow  trees  grow  by 
the  streams,  but  not  taller  than  a  man  ;  and  still  farther 
north  the  willow  and  juniper  scarcely  rise  above  the  surface  ; 
yet  this  country  has  a  liora  peculiar  to  itself.     South  of  the 


SPITZBERGEN ICELAND.  131 

island  of  Disco,  on  the  west  coast,  Danish  colonies  and  mis- 
sionaries have  made  settlements  on  some  of  the  islands,  and 
at  the  mouths  of  fiords  ;  the  Esquimaux  inhabit  the  coasts 
even  to  the  extremity  of  Baffin's  Bay. 

The  aspect  of  other  Arctic  lands  is  like  that  of  Green- 
land. In  the  island  of  Spitzbergen  the  mountains  spring 
sharp  and  grand  from  the  margin  of  the  sea  in  dark  gloomy 
masses,  mixed  with  pure  snow  and  enormous  glaciers,  pre- 
senting a  sublime  spectacle.  The  sun  is  not  seen  for  seve- 
ral months  in  the  year,  when  the  intensity  of  the  cold  splits 
rocks  and  makes  the  sea  reek  like  a  boiling  caldron.  Many 
have  perished  in  the  attempt  to  winter  in  this  island,  yet  a 
colony  of  Russian  hunters  and  fishermen  lead  a  miserable 
existence  there  within  10°  of  the  pole — the  most  northern 
inhabited  spot  on  the  globe. 

Although  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  are  pow^erful  in  shel- 
tered spots  within  the  Arctic  circle,  the  thermometer  does 
not  rise  above  45°  of  Fahrenheit.  July  is  the  only  month 
in  which  snow  does  not  fall,  and  in  the  end  of  August  the 
sea  at  night  is  covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  ice,  and  a 
summer  often  passes  without  one  day  that  can  be  called 
warm.  The  snow-blink,  the  aurora,  the  stars,  and  the 
moon,  which  appears  ten  or  twelve  days  without  intermis- 
sion in  her  northern  declination,  furnish  the  greatest  light 
the  inhabitants  enjoy  in  their  long  winter. 

Iceland  is  200  miles  east  from  Greenland,  and  lies  south 
of  the  Arctic  Circle,  which  its  most  northern  point  touches. 
Though  a  fifth  part  larger  than  Ireland,  not  more  than  4000 
square  miles  are  habitable  ;  all  besides  being  a  chaos  of  vol- 
canoes and  ice.* 

The  peculiar  feature  of  Iceland  lies  in  a  trachytic  region, 
which  seems  to  rest  on  an  ocean  of  fire.  It  consists  of  two 
vast  parallel  table-lands  covered  with  ice-clad  mountains, 
stretching  from  N.E.  to  S.W.  through  the  very  centre  of  the 
island,  separated  by  a  longitudinal  valley  nearly  100  miles 
wide,  which  reaches  from  sea  to  sea.  These  mountains 
assume  rounded  forms  with  long  level  summits,  or  domes 
with  sloping  declivities,  as  in  the  trachyte  mountains  of  the 
Andes  and  elsewhere  ;  but  such  huge  masses  of  tufa  and 
conglomerate  project  from   their  sides  in  perpendicular  or 

*  Trevelyan's  Travels  in  Iceland. 


132  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

overhanging  precipices,  separated  by  deep  ravines,  that  the 
regularity  of  their  structure  can  only  be  perceived  from  a 
distance  :  they  conceal  under  a  cold  and  tranquil  coating  of 
ice  the  fiery  germs  of  terrific  convulsions,  sometimes  burst- 
ing into  dreadful  activity,  souietimes  quiescent  for  ages. 
The  most  extensive  of  the  two  parallel  ranges  of  Jokuls  or 
Ice  Mountains  runs  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  valley,  and 
contains  Ordefa,  the  highest  point  in  Iceland,  seen  like  a 
white  cloud  from  a  great  distance  at  sea  ;  the  western  high 
land  passes  through  the  centre  of  the  island. 

Glaciers  cover  many  thousand  square  miles  in  Iceland, 
descending  from  the  mountains  and  pushing  far  into  the  low 
lands.  This  tendency  of  the  ice  to  encroach  has  very  mate- 
rially diminished  the  quantity  of  habitable  ground,  and  the 
progress  of  the  glaciers  is  facilitated  by  the  influence  of  the 
ocean  of  subterranean  fire,  which  heats  the  superincumbent 
ground  and  loosens  the  ice. 

The  longitudinal  space  between  the  mountainous  table- 
lands is  a  low  valley  100  miles  wide,  extending  from  sea 
to  sea,  where  a  substratum  of  trachyte  is  covered  with  lava, 
sand,  and  ashes,  studded  with  low  volcanic  cones.  It  is  a  tre- 
mendous desert,  never  approached  without  dread  even  by 
the  natives  ;  a  scene  of  perpetual  conflict  between  the  anta- 
gonist powers  of  fire  and  frost,  without  a  drop  of  water  or  a 
blade  of  grass  :  no  living  creature  is  to  be  seen,  not  a  bird 
nor  even  an  insect.  The  surface  is  a  confused  mass  of 
streams  of  lava  rent  by  crevices  ;  and  rocks  piled  on  rocks, 
with  occasional  glaciers,  complete  the  scene  of  desolation. 

As  herds  of  rein-deer  are  seen  browsing  on  the  Iceland 
moss  that  growls  plentifully  at  its  edges,  it  may  be  presumed 
that  some  unknown  parts  may  be  less  barren.  The  extremi- 
ties of  the  valley  are  more  especially  the  theatres  of  perpet- 
ual volcanic  activity.  At  the  southern  end,  which  opens  to 
the  sea  in  a  wide  plain,  there  are  many  volcanoes,  of  which 
Hekla  is  most  known,  from  its  insulated  position,  its  vicinity 
to  the  coast,  and  its  tremendous  eruptions.  The  cone  is  divid- 
ed into  three  peaks  by  crevices  which  are  filled  with  snow:  one 
of  the  fissures  cleaves  the  mountain  from  the  summit  to  the 
base  ;  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  produced  by  the  great 
eruption  of  1300.  Between  the  years  1004  and  1766  twenty- 
three  violent  eruptions  have  taken  place,  one  of  which  con- 
tinued six  years,  spreading  devastation  over  a  country  once 


ICELAND BOILING    SPRINGS.  133 

the  abode  of  a  thriving  colony,  now  covered  with  lava, 
scorise,  and  ashes  ;  and  in  the  year  1846  it  was  in  full  acti- 
vity. The  eruption  of  Skaptar,  which  broke  out  on  the  8th  of 
May,  1783,  and  continued  till  August,  is  one  of  the  most 
dreadful  recorded.  The  sun  was  hid  many  days  by  dense 
clouds  of  vapour,  which  extended  to  England  and  Holland, 
and  the  quantity  of  matter  thrown  out  in  this  eruption  was 
computed  at  fifty  or  sixty  thousand  millions  of  cubic  yards. 
Some  rivers  were  heated  to  ebullition,  others  dried  up  ;  the 
condensed  vapour  tell  in  snow  and  torrents  of  rain  ;  the 
country  was  laid  waste,  famine  and  disease  ensued,  and  in 
the  course  of  the  two  succeeding  years  1300  people  and 
150,000  sheep  and  horses  perished.  The  scene  of  horror 
was  closed  by  a  dreadful  earthquake.  Previous  to  the  explo- 
sion an  ominous  mildness  ot  temperature  indicated  the  ap- 
proach of  the  volcanic  fire  towards  the  surface  of  the  earth  : 
similar  warnings  had  been  observed  before  in  the  eruptions 
of  Hekla. 

A  semicircle  of  volcanic  mountains,  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  lake  Myvatr,  is  the  focus  of  the  igneous  phenomena 
at  the  northern  end  of  the  great  central  valley.  Leirhnukr 
and  Krabla,  on  the  N.E.  of  the  lake,  have  been  especially 
formidable.  After  years  of  quiescence  they  suddenly  burst 
into  violent  eruption,  and  poured  such  a  quantity  of  lava  in- 
to the  lake  Myvatr,  which  is  20  miles  in  circumference,  that 
the  water  boiled  many  days.  There  are  other  volcanoes  in  this 
district  no  less  formidable.  Various  caldrons  of  boiling  mi- 
neral pitch,  the  shattered  craters  of  ancient  volcanoes,  occur 
at  the  base  of  this  semicircle  of  mountains,  and  also  on  the 
flanks  of  Mount  Krabla.  These  caldrons  throw  up  jets  of 
the  dark  matter,  enveloped  in  clouds  of  steam,  at  regular  in- 
tervals, with  a  loud  explosion. 

The  eruptive  boiling  springs  of  Iceland  are  perhaps  the 
most  extraordinary  phenomenon  in  this  singular  country. 
All  the  great  aqueous  eruptions  occur  in  the  trachytic  for- 
mation :  they  are  characterized  by  their  high  temperature, 
by  holding  siliceous  matter  in  solution,  which  they  deposit 
in  the  form  of  siliceous  sinter,  and  by  the  discharge  of  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  gas.  Numerous  instances  of  spouting 
springs  occur  at  the  extremities  of  the  great  central  valley, 
especially  at  its  southern  end,  where  more  than  fifty  have 
been  counted  in  the  space  of  a  few  acres — some  constant, 
12 


134  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

others  periodical,  some  merely  agitated,  or  stagnant.  The 
Great  Geyser  and  Stokr,  six  miles  north-west  from  Hekla, 
are  the  most  magnificent ;  at  regular  intervals  they  project 
large  columns  of  boiling  water  100  feet  high,  enveloped  in 
clouds  of  steam,  with  tremendous  noise.  Some  springs  emit 
gas  only,  or  gas  with  a  small  quantity  of  water.  Such 
fountains  are  not  confined  to  the  land,  or  fields  of  ice  ;  they 
occur  also  in  the  sea,  and  many  issue  from  crevices  in  the 
lava-bed  of  the  lake  My  vatr,  and  rise  in  jets  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  water. 

A  region  of  the  same  character  with  the  mountains  of  the 
Icelandic  desert  extends  due  west  from  it  to  the  extremity 
of  the  long  narrow  promontory  of  the  Sneefield  Syssel,  ending 
in  the  snow-clad  cone  of  the  Sneefield  Jokul,  5000  feet  high, 
one  of  the  most  conspicuous  mountains  in  Iceland. 

With  the  exception  of  the  purely  volcanic  districts  de- 
scribed, trap-rocks  cover  20,000  square  miles  of  Iceland,  in 
beds  perfectly  parallel,  and  almost  horizontal,  which  have 
been  formed  by  streams  of  lava  at  very  ancient  epochs, 
spread  over  the  country  occasionally  4000  feet  deep. 

The  dismal  coasts  are  torn  in  every  direction  by  fiords 
penetrating  many  miles  into  the  interior,  and  splitting  into 
endless  branches.  In  these  fissures  the  sea  is  still,  dark, 
and  deep  between  walls  of  rock  1000  feet  high.  The  fiords, 
how^ever,  do  not  here,  as  in  Greenland,  terminate  in  glaciers, 
but  are  prolonged  in  narrow  valleys  through  which  streams 
and  rivers  run  to  the  sea.  In  these  valleys  the  inhabitants 
have  their  abode,  or  in  meadows  which  have  a  transient 
verdure  along  some  of  the  fiords,  where  the  sea  is  so  deep 
that  ships  find  safe  anchorage. 

In  the  valleys  on  the  northern  coast,  near  as  they  approach 
to  the  Arctic  circle,  the  soil  is  wonderfully  good,  and  there 
is  more  vegetation  than  in  any  other  part  of  Iceland,  wnth 
the  exception  of  the  eastern  shore,  which  is  the  most  favoured 
portion  of  this  desolate  land.  Rivers  abounding  in  fish  are 
much  more  frequent  there  than  elsewhere  ;  willows  and 
juniper  adorn  the  valleys,  and  birch-trees  20  feet  high  grow 
in  the  vale  of  Lagerflest,  the  only  place  which  produces 
them  large  enough  for  house  building,  and  the  verdure  is 
fine  on  the  banks  of  those  streams  which  are  heated  by  vol- 
canic fires. 

The  climate  of  Iceland  is  much  less  rigorous  than  that  of 


VICTORIA    CONTINENT.  135 

Greenland,  and  it  would  be  still  milder  were  not  the  air 
chilled  by  the  immense  fields  of  ice  from  the  Polar  Sea  which 
beset  its  shores. 

The  inhabitants  are  supplied  with  fuel  by  the  Gulf  Stream, 
which  brings  drift  wood  in  great  quantity  from  Mexico,  the 
Carolinas,  Virginia,  the  river  St.  Lawrence,  some  even 
from  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  drifted  by  currents  round  by  the 
northern  shores  of  Siberia.  The  mean  temperature  in  the 
south  of  the  island  is  about  39°  of  Fahrenheit,  that  of  the 
central  districts  36°,  and  in  the  north  it  is  rarely  above  the 
freezing  point.  The  cold  is  most  intense  when  the  sky  is 
clear,  but  that  is  a  rare  occurrence,  as  the  wind  from  the  sea 
covers  mountain  and  valley  with  thick  fog.  Hurricanes  are 
frequent  and  furious,  and,  although  thunder  is  seldom  heard 
in  high  latitudes,  Iceland  is  an  exception,  for  tremendous 
thunder-storms  are  not  uncommon  there — a  circumstance  no 
doubt  owing  to  the  volcanic  nature  of  that  island,  as  lightning 
accompanies  volcanic  eruptions  everywhere.  The  sun  is 
always  above  the  horizon  in  the  middle  of  summer,  and 
under  it  in  mid-winter,  yet  there  is  no  absolute  darkness. 

The  island  of  Jan  Mayen  lies  nearly  midway  between 
Iceland  and  Spitzbergen  :  it  is  the  most  northern  volcanic 
country  known.  Its  principal  feature  is  the  volcano  of 
Beerenberg,  6870  feet  high,  flanked  by  enormous  glaciers, 
whose  lofty  snow-capped  cone,  apparently  inaccessible,  has 
been  seen  to  emit  fire  and  smoke. 

The  south  polar  lands  are  equally  volcanic,  and  as  deeply 
icebound,  as  those  to  the  north.  Victoria  Land,  which  from 
its  extent  seems  to  form  part  of  a  continent,  was  discovered 
by  Sir  James  Ross,  who  commanded  the  expedition  sent  by 
the  British  Government  in  1839  to  ascertain  the  position  of 
the  south  magnetic  pole.  The  extensive  tract  lies  under 
the  meridian  of  New  Zealand  ;  Cape  North,  its  most  northern 
point,  is  situate  in  70°  31'  S.  lat.,  and  165°  28'  E.  long. 
To  the  west  of  that  cape  the  northern  coast  of  this  new  land 
terminates  in  perpendicular  ice-cliffs  from  200  to  600  feet 
high,  stretching  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  with  a  chain  of 
grounded  icebergs  extending  for  miles  from  the  base  of  the 
cliffs,  all  of  tabular  form,  and  varying  in  size  from  one  to 
nine  or  ten  miles  in  circumference.  A  lofty  range  of  peaked 
mountains  rises  in  the  interior  at  Cape  North,  covered  with 
unbroken  snow,  only  relieved  from   uniform  whiteness  by 


J  36  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

shadows  produced  by  the  undulations  of  the  surface.  The 
indentations  of  the  coast  are  filled  with  ice  many  hundreds 
of  feet  thick,  which  makes  it  impossible  to  land.  To  the 
east  of  Cape  North  the  coast  trends  first  to  S.E.  by  E.,  and 
then  in  a  southerly  direction  to  78^°  of  south  latitude,  at 
which  point  it  suddenly  bends  to  the  east  and  extends  in 
one  continuous  vertical  ice-cliff  to  an  unknown  distance 
in  that  direction.  The  first  view^  of  Victoria  Land  is  de- 
scribed as  most  magnificent.  "  On  the  11th  of  January, 
1841,  in  about  latitude  71°  S.,  and  longitude  171°  E.,  the 
Antarctic  continent  w^as  first  seen,  the  general  outline  of 
which  at  once  indicated  its  volcanic  character,  rising  steeply 
from  the  ocean  in  a  stupendous  mountain-range,  peak  above 
peak,  enveloped  in  perpetual  snow,  and  clustered  together 
in  countless  groups  resembling  a  vast  mass  of  crystallization, 
which,  as  the  sun's  rays  were  reflected  on  it,  exhibited  a 
scene  of  such  unequalled  magnificence  and  splendour  as 
would  baffle  all  power  of  language  to  portray  or  give  the 
faintest  conception  of.  One  very  remarkable  peak,  in  shape 
like  a  huge  crystal  of  quartz,  rose  to  the  height  of  7867 
feet,  another  to*  9096,  and  a  third  to  8444  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  From  these  peaks  ridges  descended  to  the 
coast,  terminating  abruptly  in  bold  capes,  and  promontories, 
whose  steep  escarpments,  affording  shelter  to  neither  ice  nor 
snow,  alone  showed  the  jet  black  lava  or  basalt  which  reposed 
beneath  the  mantle  of  eternal  frost."  .  .  .  .  "  On  the  2Sth, 
in  latitude  77°  31',  and  longitude  167°  1',  the  burning  vol- 
cano. Mount  Erebus,  was  discovered  covered  with  ice  and 
snow  from  its  base  to  its  summit,  from  which  a  dense  column 
of  black  smoke  towered  high  above  the  numerous  other  lofty 
cones  and  crateriferous  peaks  w^ith  which  this  extraordinary 
land  is  studded  from  the  72d  to  the  78th  degree  of  latitude. 
Its  height  above  the  sea  is  12,367  feet;  and  Mount  Terror,  an 
extinct  crater  adjoining  it,  which  has  doubtless  once  given 
vent  to  fires  beneath,  attains  an  altitude  little  inferior,  being 
10,884  teet  in  height,  and  ending  in  a  cape  from  which  a  vast 
barrier  of  ice  extended  in  an  easterly  direction,  checking  all 
farther  progress  south.  This  continuous  perpendicular  wall 
of  ice,  varying  in  height  from  200  to  100  feet,  its  summit 
presenting  an  almostunvarying  leveloutline,  wetraced  for 300 
miles,  wdien  the  pack-ice  obstructed  all  farther  progress."* 

*   Reinaik>;   on    the    Antarctic   Continent  and  Southern  Island?,  by  Robert 
M'Cormick,  Esq.,  Surgeon  of  H. M.S.  Erebus. 


AUSTRALIA.  137 

The  vertical  cliff  in  question  forms  a  completely  solid 
mass  of  ice  about  1000  feet  thick  :  the  greater  part  of  which 
is  below  the  surface  of  the  sea  ;  there  is  not  the  smallest  ap- 
pearance of  a  fissure  throughout  its  whole  extent  ;  and  the 
intensely  blue  sky  beyond,  indicated  plainly  the  great  dis- 
tance to  which  the  ice-plains  reach  southwards.  Gigantic 
icicles  hang  from  every  projecting  point  of  the  icy  cliff, 
showing  that  it  sometimes  thaws  in  these  latitudes,  although 
in  the  month  of  February,  which  corresponds  with  August 
in  England,  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  did  not  rise  above 
14°  at  noon.  In  the  North  Polar  Ocean,  on  the  contrary, 
streams  of  water  flow  from  every  iceberg  during  summer. 
The  whole  of  this  country  is  beyond  the  pale  of  vegetation  : 
no  moss,  not  even  a  lichen,  covers  the  barren  soil,  where 
everlasting  winter  reigns.  Parry  Mountains,  a  lofty  range 
stretching  south  from  Mount  Terror  to  the  79th  parallel,  is 
the  most  southerly  land  yet  discovered.  The  south  magnetic 
pole,  the  object  of  the  expedition,  is  situated  in  Victoria 
Land,  in  75°  b'  S.  lat.,  and  154°  8'  E.  long. 

Various  tracts  of  land  have  been  discovered  near  the  An- 
tarctic circle,  and  within  it,  though  none  in  so  high  a  latitude 
as  Victoria  Land;  whether  they  form  part  of  one  large  con- 
tinent remains  to  be  ascertained.  Discovery  ships,  which 
have  been  sent  by  the  Russian,  French,  and  American  Go- 
vernments, have  increased  our  knowledge  of  these  far  re- 
gions, and  the  spirited  adventures  of  British  merchants  and 
captains  of  whalers  have  contributed  quite  as  much. 

The  land  within  the  Arctic  circle  is  generally  volcanic,  at 
least  the  coast-line,  which  is  all  that  is  yet  known,  and,  being 
covered  with  snow  and  ice,  it  is  destitute  of  vegetation. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE    CONTINENT  OF    AUSTRALIA TASMANIA,  OR  VAN  DIEMEn's 

LAND — NEW    ZEALAND — NEW    GUINEA BORNEO ATOLLS 

ENCIRCLING    REEFS — BARRIER    REEFS CORAL    REEFS VOL- 
CANIC   ISLANDS AREAS    OF   SUBSIDENCE  AND    ELEVATION    IN 

THE    BED    OF    THE    PACIFIC ACTIVE    VOLCANOES. 

The  labyrinth  of  islands  that  is  scattered  over  the  Pacific 
Ocean  for  more  than  30  degrees  on  each  side  of  the  equator 
12* 


138  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

and  from  the  130th  eastern  meridian  to  Sumatra,  which  all 
but  unites  this  enormous  archipelago  to  the  continent  of  Asia, 
has  the  group  of  New  Zealand  or  Tasmania,  and  the  conti- 
nent of  Australia,  with  its  appendage,  Van  Diemen's  Land, 
on  the  south;  and  altogether  forms  a  region  which,  from  the 
unstable  nature  of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  is  partly  the  wreck 
of  a  continent  that  has  been  engulfed  by  the  ocean,  and  partly 
the  highest  summits  of  a  new  one  rising  above  the  waves. 
This  extensive  portion  of  the  globe  is,  in  many  parts,  terra 
incognita;  the  Indian  Archipelago  has  never  been  explored, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  our  colonies  in  New  Holland  and 
New  Zealand,  is  little  known. 

The  continent  of  New  Holland,  2400  miles  from  east  to 
west,  and  1700  from  north  to  south,  is  divided  into  two  un- 
equal parts  by  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  and  consequently  has 
both  a  temperate  and  a  tropical  climate.  New  Guinea,  se- 
parated from  New  Holland  by  Torres  Straits,  and  traversed 
by  the  same  chain  of  mountains  with  New  Holland  and 
Van  Uiemen's  Land,  is  so  perfectly  similar  in  structure, 
that  it  forms  but  a  detached  member  of  the  adjacent  con- 
tinent. 

The  coasts  of  New  Holland  are  indented  by  very  large  bays, 
and  by  harbours  that  might  give  shelter  to  all  the  navies  in 
Europe.    The  most  distinguishing  feature  of  the  eastern  side, 
which  is  chiefly  occupied  by  the  British  colony  of  New  South 
Wales,  is  a  long  chain  of  mountains  which  never  goes  far 
from  the  coast,  and,  w^ith  the  exception  of  some  short  devia- 
tions in   its  southern  part,  maintains  a  meridional  direction 
through  35^  of  latitude.     It  is  continued  at  one  extremity 
from  Torres  Straits,  and  at  the  north  end  of  the  Gulf  of  Car- 
pentaria, far  into  the  interior  of  New  Guinea;   and  at  the 
other  it  traverses  the  whole  of  Van  Diemen's   Land.      It  is 
low  in   the   northern   parts  of  New  Holland,  being  in  some 
places  merely  a  high  land;   but  about  the   30th   degree  of 
south  latitude  it  assumes  the  form  of  a  regular  mountain-chain, 
and,  running  in  a  very  tortuous  line  from  N.E.  to  S.W.,  ter- 
minates   its   visible    course    at    Wilson's    Promontory,   the 
southern  extremity  of  the  continent.     It  is  continued,  how^- 
ever,  by  a  chain  of  mountainous  islands  across  Bass's  Straits 
to  Cape  Portland,  in  Van  Diemen's  Land;  and  from  thence 
the  range  proceeds  in  a  zigzag  line  of  high  and  picturesque 
mountains  to  South  Cxipe,  where  it  ends,  having,  in  its  course 


NEW    SOUTH    WALES. 


139 


of  1500  miles,  separated  the  drainage  of  both  countries  into 
eastern  and  western  waters. 

The  distance  of  the  chain  from  the  sea  in  New  South 
Wales  is  from  50  to  100  miles,  but  at  the  32d  parallel  it 
recedes  to  150,  yet  soon  returns,  and  forms  the  wild  group 
of  the  Corecudgy  peaks,  from  whence,  under  the  names  of 
the  Blue  Mountains  and  Australian  Alps,  its  highest  part,  it 
proceeds  in  a  general  westerly  direction  to  the  land's  ends. 

The  average  height  of  these  mountains  is  only  from  2400 
to  4700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  even  Mount  Kos- 
ciuszko,  the  loftiest  of  the  Australian  Alps,  is  not  more  than 
6500  feet  high,  yet  its  position  is  so  favourable,  that  the  view 
from  its  snowy  and  craggy  top  sweeps  over  7000  square  miles. 
The  rugged  and  savage  character  of  these  mountains  far  ex- 
ceeds what  might  be  expected  from  their  height  :  in  some 
places,  it  is  true,  their  tops  are  rounded  and  covered  with 
forest  ;  but  by  lar  the  greater  part  of  the  chain,  though 
wooded  along  the  flanks,  is  crowned  by  naked  needles,  tooth- 
formed  peaks,  and  flat  crests  of  granite  or  porphyry,  mingled 
with  patches  of  snow.  The  spurs  give  a  terrific  character  to 
these  mountains,  and  in  many  places  render  them  altogether 
inaccessible,  both  in  New  South  Wales  and  Van  Diemen's 
Land.  These  shoot  right  and  left  from  the  ridgy  axis  of  the 
main  range,  equal  to  it  in  height,  and  separated  from  it,  and 
from  one  another,  by  dark  and  almost  subterraneous  gullies, 
like  rents  in  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  iron-bound  by  imprac- 
ticable precipices,  with  streams  flowing  through  them  in  black 
silent  eddies  or  foaming  torrents.  The  intricate  character  of 
these  ravines,  the  danger  of  descending  into  them,  and  the 
difliculty  of  getting  out  again,  remier  this  mountain-chain,  in 
New  South  Wales  at  least,  almost  a  complete  barrier  between 
the  country  on  the  coast  and  that  in  the  interior — a  circum- 
stance very  unfavourable  to  the  latter.* 

In  New  South  Wales  the  country  slopes  westward  from 
these  mountains  to  a  low,  flat,  unbroken  plain.  On  the  east 
side,  darkly  verdant  and  round-topped  hills  and  ridges  are 
promiscuously  grouped  together,  leading  to  a  richly-wooded 
undulating  country,  which  gradually  descends  to  the  coast, 
and  forms  the  valuable  lands  of  the  British  colony.  Disco- 
vered  by  Cook  in  the  year  1770,  it  was  not  colonized  till 

•   Memoirs  of  Count  Strzelecki.        - 


iV 


140  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

1778.  It  has  become  a  prosperous  country  ;  and  although 
new  settlers  in  the  more  remote  parts  suffer  the  privations 
and  difficulties  incident  to  their  position,  yet  there  is  educa- 
ted society  in  the  towns,  with  the  comforts  and  luxuries  of 
civilized  life. 

The  coast-belt  on  the  western  side  of  New  Holland  is  ge- 
nerally of  inferior  land,  with  richer  tracts  interspersed  near 
the  rivers  ;  and  bounded  on  the  east  by  a  range  of  primary 
mountains  from  3000  to  4000  feet  high,  in  which  granite 
occasionally  appears.  Beyond  this  the  country  is  level,  and 
the  land  better,  though  nowhere  very  productive  except  in 
grass. 

None  of  the  rivers  of  New  Holland  are  navigable  to  any 
great  distance  from  their  mouths  ;  the  want  of  water  is  se- 
verely felt  in  the  interior,  which,  as  far  as  it  is  known,  is  a 
treeless  desert  of  sand,  swamps,  and  jungle  ;  yet  a  belief 
prevails  that  there  is  a  large  sea,  or  fresh-water  lake,  in  its 
centre  ;  and  this  opinion  is  founded  partly  on  the  nature  of 
the  soil,  and  also  because  all  the  rivers  that  flow  into  the  sea 
on  the  northern  coast,  between  the  gulfs  of  Van  Diemen  and 
Carpentaria,  converge  towards  their  sources,  as  if  they  served 
for  drains  to  some  large  body  of  water. 

However  unpropitious  the  middle  of  the  continent  may 
be,  and  the  shores  generally  have  the  same  barren  character, 
there  is  abundance  of  fine  country  inland  from  the  coasts. 
On  the  north  all  tropical  productions  might  be  raised,  and  in 
so  large  a  continent  there  must  be  extensive  tracts  of  arable 
land,  though  its  peculiar  character  is  pastoral.  There  are 
large  forests  on  the  mountains  and  elsewhere,  yet  that  mois- 
ture is  wanting  which  clothes  other  countries  in  the  same 
latitudes  with  rank  vegetation.  In  the  colonies  the  clearing 
of  a  great  extent  of  land  has  increased  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature, so  that  the  climate  has  become  hotter  and  drier, 
and  not  thereby  improved. 

Van  Diemen's  Land,  of  triangular  form,  has  an  area  of 
27,200  square  miles,  and  is  very  mountainous.  No  coun-r 
try  has  a  greater  number  of  deep  commodious  harbours  ;  and 
as  most  of  the  rivers,  though  not  navigable  to  any  distance, 
end  in  arms  of  the  sea,  they  affford  secure  anchorage  for  ships 
of  any  size.  The  mountain-chain  that  traverses  the  colony 
of  New  South  Wales,  and  the  islands  in  Bass's  Straits,  starts 
anew  from  Cape  Portland,  and,  winding  through  Van  Die- 


NEW    SOUTH    WALES NEW    ZEALAND.  141 

men's  Land  in  the  form  of  the  letter  Z,  separates  it  into  two 
nearly  equal  parts,  with  a  mean  height  of  3750  feet,  and  at 
an  average  distance  of  40  miles  from  the  sea.  It  incloses 
the  basins  of  the  Derwent  and  Heron  rivers,  and,  after  send- 
ing a  branch  between  them  to  Hobart  Town,  ends  at  South 
Cape.  The  offsets  which  shoot  in  all  directions  are  as  savage 
and  full  of  impassable  chasms  as  it  is  itself.  There  are  cul- 
tivable plains  and  valleys  along  the  numerous  rivers  and 
large  lakes  by  which  the  country  is  well  watered  ;  so  that 
Vaft  Dieraen's  Land  is  more  agricultural  and  fertile  than  the 
adjacent  continent,  but  its  climate  is  wet  and  cold.  The 
uncleared  soil  of  both  countries,  however,  is  far  inferior  to 
that  in  the  greater  part  of  North  or  South  America.* 

Granite  constitutes  the  entire  floor  of  the  western  portion 
of  New  South  Wales,  and  extends  far  into  the  interior  of 
the  continent,  bearing  a  striking  resemblance  in  character 
to  a  similar  portion  of  the  Altai  chain  described  by  Baron 
Humboldt.  The  central  axis  of  the  mountain-range,  in 
New  South  Wales  and  in  Van  Diemen's  Land,  is  of  granite, 
syenite,  and  quartz  ;  but  in  early  times  there  had  been 
great  invasions  of  volcanic  substances,  as  many  parts  of  the 
main  chain,  and  most  of  its  offsets,  are  of  the  older  igneous 
rocks.  The  fossiliferous  strata  of  the  two  colonies  are 
mostly  of  the  Palseozoic  period,  but  their  fossil  fauna  is  poor 
in  species.  Some  are  identical  with,  and  others  are  repre- 
sentatives of,  the  species  of  other  countries,  even  of  Eng- 
land. It  appears,  from  their  coal-measures,  that  the  flora 
of  these  countries  was  as  distinct  m  appearance  from  that  of 
the  northern  hemisphere,  previous  to  the  carboniferous 
period,  as  it  is  at  the  present  day. 

New  Zealand,  divided  into  three  islands  by  rocky  and 
dangerous  channels,  is  superior  to  Australia  in  richness  of 
soil,  fertility,  and  beauty,  and  abounds  in  fine  timber  and  a 
variety  of  vegetable  and  mineral  productions.  High  moun- 
tains run  through  the  islands,  which  in'  the  most  northerly 
rise  14,000  feet  above  the  stormy  ocean  around,  buried 
two-thirds  of  their  height  in  permanent  snow  and  glaciers, 
and  exhibiting  on  the  grandest  scale  all  the  Alpine  charac- 
ters, with  the  addition  of  active  volcanoes  on  the  eastern  and 
western  coasts.     The  coast  is  a  broken  country,  overspread 

*   Count  Strzelecki. 


142  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

with  a  most  luxuriant,  but  dark  and  gloomy  vegetation. 
There  are  undulating  tracts  and  table-lands  of  great  extent 
without  a  tree,  overrun  by  ferns  and  a  low  kind  of  myrtle  ; 
but  the  mountain-ridges  are  clothed  with  dense  and  gigantic 
forests.  There  is  much  good  land  and  many  lakes,  with  navi- 
gable rivers  and  the  best  of  harbours  ;  so  that  this  country  is 
peculiarly  well  suited  for  a  colony,  but  difficult  of  access 
from  a  boisterous  ocean. 

A  very  different  scene  from  the  stormy  seas  of  New  Zea- 
land presents  itself  to  the  north  of  Australia,  lliere,  vivi- 
fied by  the  glowing  sun  of  the  equator,  the  islands  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago  are  of  matchless  beauty,  crowned  by 
lofty  mountains,  loaded  with  aromatic  verdure,  that  shelve 
to  the  shore,  or  dip  into  a  transparent  glassy  sea.  Their 
coasts  are  cut  by  deep  inlets,  and  watered  by  the  purest 
streams,  which  descend  in  cascades,  rushing  through  wild 
crevices.  The  whole  is  so  densely  covered  with  palms  and 
other  beautiful  forms  of  tropical  vegetation,  that  they  seem 
to  realize  a  terrestrial  paradise. 

Papua,  or  New  Guinea,  is  the  largest  island  in  the  Pacific, 
1400  miles  long,  and  200  in  width,  with  mountains  rising 
above  mountains,  till  in  the  west  they  attain  the  height  of 
16,000  feet,  capped  with  snow,  and  two  volcanoes  burn  on 
its  northern  shores.  From  its  position  so  near  the  equator, 
it  is  probable  that  New  Guinea  has  the  same  vegetation  with 
the  Spice  Islands  to  the  east  ;  and,  from  the  little  that  is 
known  of  it,  must  be  one  of  the  finest  countries  in  exist- 
ence. 

Borneo,  next  in  size  to  New  Guinea,  is  a  noble  island, 
divided  in  two  by  the  equator,  and  traversed  through  its 
whole  length  by  magnificent  chains  of  mountains,  which 
end  in  three  branches  at  the  Java  Sea.  Beautiful  rivers 
flow  from  them  to  the  plains,  and  several  of  these  spring 
from  a  spacious  lake  on  the  table-land  in  the  interior,  among 
the  peaks  of  Keni-Balu,  the  highest  point  of  the  island. 
Diamonds,  gold,  and  antimony  are  among  its  minerals  ; 
gums,  precious  woods,  and  all  kinds  of  spices  and  tropical 
fruit,  are  among  its  vegetables. 

A  volume  might  be  written  on  the  beauty  and  riches  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago.  Many  of  the  islands  are  hardly 
known,  and  the  interior  of  the  greater  number  has  never 
been  explored  ;  so  that  they  offer  a  wide  field  of  discovery 


ATOLLS.  143 

to  the  enterprising  traveller,  and  they  are  now  of  easier 
access  since  the  seas  have  been  cleared  of  pirates  by  the 
Honorable  Captain  Keppel.  The  success  of  Mr.  Brook  in 
conciliating  the  natives  is  a  noble  instance  of  the  power  of 
mind. 

They  have  become  of  much  importance  since  our  relation 
with  China  has  been  altered,  and  on  that  account  Captain 
Stanley,  and  other  scientific  naval  officers,  have  been  em- 
ployed to  survey  the  coasts  and  channels  of  these  unknown 
seas.  The  great  intertropical  islands  in  the  Pacific,  like- 
wise other  large  islands,  as  Ceylon  and  Madagascar  in  the 
Indian  Seas,  which,  by  the  way,  do  not  differ  in  character 
from  the  preceding,  are  really  continents  in  miniature,  with 
their  mountains  and  plains,  their  lakes  and  rivers  ;  and  in 
climate  they  vary,  like  the  main  land,  with  the  latitude,  only 
that  continental  climates  are  more  extreme  both  as  to  heat 
and  cold. 

It  is  a  singular  circumstance,  arising  from  the  instability 
of  the  crust  of  the  earth,  that,  with  only  three  or  four  excep- 
tions, all  the  smaller  tropical  islands  in  the  Pacific  and  In- 
dian Oceans  are  either  volcanic  or  coralline,  except  New 
Caledonia  and  the  Seychelles;  and  it  is  a  startling  fact, 
that,  in  most  cases  where  there  are  volcanoes,  the  land  is 
rising  by  slow  and  almost  im})erceptible  degrees  above  the 
ocean,  whereas  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  those 
vast  spaces,  studded  with  coral  islands  or  atolls,  are  actually 
sinking  below  it,  and  have  been  for  ages.* 

There  are  four  different  kinds  of  coral  formations  in  the 
Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans,  all  entirely  produced  by  the 
growth  of  organic  beings  and  their  detritus  ;  namely, 
lagoon  islands  or  atolls,  encircling  reefs,  barrier  reefs,  and 
coral  fringes.  They  are  all  nearly  confined  to  the  tropical 
regions  ;  the  atolls  to  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans  alone. 

An  atoll,  or  lagoon  island,  consists  of  a  chaplet  or  ring  of 
coral,  inclosing  a  lagoon,  or  portion  of  the  ocean,  in  its  cen- 
tre. The  average  breadth  of  the  part  of  the  ring  above  the 
surface  of  the  sea  is  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  oftener  less, 
and  it  seldom  rises  higher  than  from  6  to  10  or  12  feet  above 
the  waves.  Hence  the  lagoon  islands  are  not  discernible  at  a 
very  small  distance,  unless  when  they  are  covered  with  the 

•  Darwin  on  Coral  Reefs. 


144  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

cocoa-nut,  palm,  or  the  pandana,  which  is  frequently  the 
case.  On  the  outer  side  this  ring  or  circlet  shelves  down 
to  the  distance  of  100  or  200  yards  from  its  edge,  so  that 
the  sea  gradually  deepens  to  25  fathoms,  beyond  which  the 
sides  plunge  at  once  into  the  unfathomable  depths  of  the 
ocean,  with  a  more  rapid  descent  than  the  cone  of  any  vol- 
cano. Even  at  the  small  distance  of  some  hundred  yards, 
no  bottom  has  been  found  with  a  sounding-line  a  mile  and 
a  half  long.  All  the  coral  at  a  moderate  depth  below  water 
is  alive — all  above  is  dead,  being  the  detritus  of  the  living 
part  washed  up  by  the  surf,  which  is  so  tremendous  on  the 
windward  side  of  the  tropical  islands  of  the  Pacific  and 
Indian  Oceans  that  it  is  often  heard  miles  off,  and  is  fre- 
quently the  first  warning  to  seamen  of  their  approach  to  an 
atoll. 

On  the  lagoon  side,  where  the  water  is  calm,  the  bound- 
ing-ring,  or  reef,  shelves  into  it  by  a  succession  of  ledges, 
also  of  living  coral,  though  not  of  the  same  species  with 
those  which  build  the  exterior  wall  and  the  foundations  of 
the  whole  ring.  The  perpetual  change  of  water  brought 
into  contact  with  the  external  coral  by  the  breakers  probably 
supplies  them  with  more  food  than  they  could  obtain  in  a 
quieter  sea,  which  may  account  for  their  more  luxuriant 
growth.  At  the  same  time,  they  deprive  the  whole  of  the 
corals  in  the  interior  of  the  most  nourishing  part  of  their 
food,  because  the  still-water  in  the  lagoon,  being  supplied 
from  the  exterior  by  openings  in  the  ring,  ceases  to  produce 
the  hardier  corals  ;  and  species  of  more  delicate  forms,  and 
of  much  slower  growth,  take  their  place.*  The  depth  of 
the  lagoon  varies,  in  different  atolls,  from  20  to  50  fathoms, 
the  bottom  being  partly  detritus  and  partly  live  coral.  By 
the  growth  of  the  coral,  some  few  of  the  lagoons  have  been 
filled  up  ;  but  the  process  is  very  slow  from  the  causes 
assigned,  and  also  because  there  are  marine  animals  that 
feed  on  the  living  coral,  and  prevent  its  indefinite  growth. 
In  all  departments  of  nature,  the  exuberant  increase  of  any 
one  class  is  checked  and  limited  by  others.  The  coral  is  of 
the  most  varied  and  delicate  structure,  and  of  the  most 
beautiful  tints.  Dark  brown,  vivid  green,  rich  purple,  pink, 
deep  blue,  peach-colour,  yellow,  w^ith  dazzling  white,  con- 

*  Supplement  to  the  Observations  on  the  Temple  of  J?eraphis,  by  Charles 
Babbage,  Esq. 


ATOLLS.  145 

trasted  with  deep  shadows,  shine  through  the  limpid  water; 
while  fish  of  the  most  gorgeous  hues  swim  among  the  branch- 
ing coral,  which  are  of  many  different  kinds,  though  all 
combine  in  the  structure  of  these  sino-ular  islands.  Lagoon 
islands  are  sometimes  circular,  but  more  frequently  oval  or 
irregular  in  their  form.  Sometimes  they  are  solitary,  or  in 
groups,  but  they  occur  most  frequently  in  elongated  archi- 
pelagos, with  the  atolis  elongated  in  the  same  direction. 
The  grouping  of  atolls  bears  a  perfect  analogy  to  the  group- 
ing of  the  archipelagos  of  ordinary  islands. 

The  size  of  atolls  varies  from  two  to  ninety  miles  in 
diameter,  and  islets  are  frequently  formed  on  the  coral  rings 
by  the  washing  up  of  the  detritus,  for  they  are  so  low  that 
the  waves  break  over  them  in  high  tides  or  storms.  They 
have  openings  or  channels  in  their  circuit,  generally  on  the 
lee  side,  where  the  tide  enters,  and  by  these  ships  may  sail 
into  the  lagoons,  which  are  excellent  harbours  ;  and  even  on 
the  surface  of  the  circlet  or  reef  itself  there  are  occasionally 
boat-channels,  between  the  islets. 

Dangerous  Archipelago,  lying  east  of  the  Society  Islands, 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  assemblages  of  atolls  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  There  are  80  of  them,  generally  of  a  cir- 
cular form,  surrounding  very  deep  lagoons,  and  separated 
from  each  other  by  profound  depths.  The  reefs  or  rings  are 
about  half  a  mile  wide,  and  seldom  rise  more  than  10  feet 
above  the  edge  of  the  surf,  which  beats  on  them  with  such 
violence  that  it  may  be  heard  at  the  distance  of  8  miles  ; 
and  yet  on  that  side  the  coral  insects  build  more  vigorously, 
and  vegetation  thrives  better,  than  on  the  other;  niany  of 
the  islets  are  inhabited. 

The  Caroline  Archipelago,  the  largest  of  all,  lies  north  of 
the  equator,  and  extends  its  atolls  in  60  groups  over  1000 
miles.  Many  are  of  great  size,  and  all  are  beat  by  a  tem- 
pestuous sea  and  occasional  hurricanes.  The  atolls  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean  and  China  Sea  are  beyond  enumeration. 
Though  less  frequent  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  none  are  more 
interesting,  or  afford  more  perfect  specimens  of  this  peculiar 
formation  or  the  Maldiva  and  Laccadive  Archipelagos,  both 
nearly  parallel  to  the  coast  of  Malabar,  and  elongated  in  that 
direction.  The  former  is  470  miles  long,  and  about  50 
miles  broad,  with  the  atolls  arranged  in  a  double  row,  sepa- 
rated by  an  unfathomable  sea,  into  w^hich  their  sides  descend 
13 


146  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

with  more  than  ordinary  rapidity.  The  largest  atoll  is  88 
miles  long,  and  somewhat  less  than  20  broad  ;  Suadiva,  the 
next  in  size,  is  44  miles  by  23,  with  a  large  lagoon  in  its 
centre,  to  which  there  is  access  by  42  openings.  There  are 
inhabited  islets  on  most  of  the  chaplets  or  rings  not  higher 
than  20  feet,  while  the  reefs  themselves  are  nowhere  more 
than  6  feet  above  the  surge. 

The  Laccadives  run  to  the  north  of  this  archipelago  in 
a  double  line  of  nearly  circular  atolls,  on  which  are  low  inha- 
bited islets. 

Encircling  reefs  differ  in  no  respect  from  atoll  reefs  ex- 
cept that  they  have  one  or  more  islands  in  their  lagoon. 
They  commonly  form  a  ring  round  mountainous  islands,  at  a 
distance  of  two  or  three  miles  from  the  shore,  rising  on  the 
outside  from  a  very  deep  ocean,  and  separated  from  the  land 
by  a  lagoon  or  channel  200  or  300  feet  deep.  These  reefs 
surround  the  submarine  base  of  the  island,  and,  rising  by  a 
steep  ascent  to  the  surface,  they  encircle  the  island  itself. 
The  Caroline  Archipelago,  already  mentioned,  exhibits  good 
examples  of  this  structure  in  the  encircled  islands  of  Hogolen 
and  ISeniavine  :  the  narrow  ring  or  encircling  reef  of  the 
former  is  135  miles  in  its  very  irregular  circuit,  on  which  are  a 
vast  number  of  islets  ;  but  six  or  eight  islands  rise  to  consi- 
derable height  from  its  lagoon,  which  is  so  deep,  and  the 
opening  into  it  so  large,  that  a  frigate  might  sail  into  it. 
The  encircling  reef  of  Seniavine  is  narrow  and  irregular,  and 
its  lagoon  is  so  nearly  filled  by  a  lofty  island,  that  it  leaves 
only  a  strip  of  water  round  it  from  two  to  five  miles  wide 
and  30  fathoms  deep. 

Otaheite,  the  largest  of  the  Society  group,  is  another  in- 
stance of  an  encircled  island  of  the  most  beautiful  kind  ;  it 
rises  in  mountains  7000  feet  high,  with  only  a  narrow  plain 
along  the  shore,  and,  except  where  cleared  for  cultivation, 
it  is  covered  with  forests  of  cocoa-nut,  palms,  bananas, 
bread-fruit,  and  other  productions  of  a  tropical  climate. 
The  lagoon,  which  encompasses  it  like  an  enormous  moat, 
is  30  fathoms  deep,  and  is  hemmed  in  from  the  ocean  by 
a  coral  band  of  the  usual  kind,  at  a  distance  varying  from 
half  a  mile  to  three  miles. 

Barrier  reefs  are  of  precisely  the  same  structure  as  the  two 
preceding  classes,  from  which  they  only  differ  in  their  posi- 
tion with  regard  to  the  land.     A  barrier  reef  off  the  north- 


CORAL    REEFS LAGOON    ISLANDS.  147 

east  coast  of  the  continent  of  Australia  is  the  grandest  coral 
formation  existing.  Rising  at  once  from  an  unfathomable 
ocean,  it  extends  1000  miles  along  the  coast,  with  a  breadth 
varying  from  200  yards  to  a  mile,  and  at  an  average  distance 
of  from  20  to  30  miles  from  the  shore,  in  some  places  in- 
creasing to  60  and  even  70  miles.  The  great  arm  of  the 
sea  included  between  it  and  the  land  is  nowhere  less  than 
10,  occasionally  60  fathoms  deep,  and  is  safely  navigable 
throughout  its  whole  length,  with  a  few  transverse  openings, 
by  which  ships  can  enter.  The  reef  is  really  1200  miles 
long,  because  it  stretches  nearly  across  Torres  Straits. 
There  are  also  extensive  barrier  reefs  on  the  islands  of 
Louisiade  and  New  Caledonia,  which  are  exactly  opposite 
to  the  great  Australian  reef;  and  as  atolls  stud  that  part  of 
the  Pacific  which  lies  between  them,  it  is  called  the  Coralline 
Sea.  The  rolling  of  the  billows  along  the  great  Australian 
reef  has  been  admirably  described.  "  The  long  ocean-swell, 
being  suddenly  impeded  by  this  barrier,  lifted  itself  in  one 
great  continuous  ridge  of  deep  blue  water,  which,  curling 
over,  fell  on  the  edge  of  the  reef  in  an  unbroken  cataract  of 
dazzling  white  foam.  Each  line  of  breaker  runs  often  one 
or  two  miles  in  length  with  not  a  perceptible  gap  in  its  con- 
tinuity. There  was  a  simple  grandeur  and  display  of  power 
and  beauty  in  this  scene  that  rose  even  to  sublimity.  The 
unbroken  roar  of  the  surf,  with  its  regular  pulsation  of 
thunder,  as  each  succeeding  swell  fell  first  on  the  outer  edge 
of  the  reef,  was  almost  ileafening,  yet  so  deep-toned  as  not 
to   interfere   with    the    slightest   nearer   and  sharper   sound. 

Both  the  sound  and  sight  were  such  as  to  impress 

the  spectator  with  the  consciousness  of  standing  in  the  pre- 
sence of  an  overwhelming  majesty  and  power."* 

Coral  reefs  are  distinct  from  all  the  foregoing  :  they  are 
merely  fringes  of  coral  along  the  margin  of  a  shore,  and, 
as  they  line  the  shore  itself,  they  have  no  lagoons.  A  vast 
extent  of  coast,  both  on  the  continents  and  islands,  are  fringed 
by  these  reefs,  and,  as  they  frequently  surround  shoals,  they 
are  very  dangerous. 

Lagoon  islands  are  the  work  of  various  species  of  coral 
insects,  but  those  particular  polypi  which  build  the  profound 
external  wall,  the  foundation  and  support  of  the  whole  ring 

*    By  Mr.  Jukes,  Maturaiist  to  the  Surveying  Voyage  of  Uaptaia  Black- 
wood, K..N.,  in  Torres  Straits. 


148  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

or  reef,  are  raost  vigorous  when  most  exposed  to  the 
breakers :  they  cannot  exist  at  a  greater  depth  than  25  or 
30  fathoms  at  most,  and  die  immediately  when  left  dry  ; 
yet  the  coral  wall  descends  precipitously  to  unfathomable 
depths  ;  and  although  the  whole  of  it  is  not  the  work  of 
these  insects,  yet  the  perpendicular  thickness  of  the  coral  is 
known  to  be  very  great,  extending  hundreds  of  feet  below 
the  depth  at  which  these  polypi  cease  to  live.  From  an 
extensive  survey  of  the  Coralline  seas  of  the  tropics,  Mr. 
Darwin  has  found  an  explanation  of  these  singular  pheno- 
mena in  the  instability  of  the  crust  of  the  earth. 

Since  there  are  certain  proofs  that  large  areas  of  the  dry 
land  are  gradually  rising,  and  others  sinking  down,  so  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean  is  not  exempt  from  the  general  change 
that  is  slowly  bringing  about  a  new  state  of  things  ;  and  as 
there  is  evidence  on  multitudes  of  the  volcanic  islands  in 
the  Pacific  of  a  rise  in  certain  parts  of  the  basis  of  the  ocean, 
so  the  lagoon  islands  indicate  a  subsidence  in  others — 
changes  arising  from  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the 
strata  under  the  bed  of  the  ocean. 

There  are  strong  reasons  for  believing  that  a  continent 
once  occupied  a  great  part  of  the  tropical  Pacific,  some  part 
of  which  subsided  by  slow  and  imperceptible  degrees.  As 
portions  of  it  gradually  sank  down  below  the  surface  of  the 
deep,  the  tops  of  mountains  and  table-lands  would  remain 
as  islands  of  dififerent  magnitude  and  elevation,  and  w^ould 
form  archipelagos  elongated  in  the  direction  of  the  moun- 
tain-chains. Now  the  coral-insect  which  constructs  the 
outward  wall  and  mass  of  the  reefs,  never  builds  laterally, 
and  cannot  exist  at  a  greater  depth  than  25  or  30  fathoms. 
Hence,  if  it  began  to  lay  the  foundations  of  its  reef  on  the 
submerged  flanks  of  an  island,  it  would  be  obliged  to  build 
its  wall  upwards  in  proportion  as  the  island  sank  down,  so 
that  at  length  a  lagoon  would  be  formed  between  it  and 
the  land.  As  the  subsidence  continued,  the  lagoon  would 
increase,  the  island  would  diminish,  and  the  base  of  the  coral 
reef  would  sink  deeper  and  deeper,  while  the  insects  would 
always  keep  its  top  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  till 
at  length  the  island  would  entirely  disappear,  and  a  perfect 
atoli  would  be  left.  If  the  island  were  mountainous,  each 
peak  would  form  a  separate  island  in  the  lagoon,  and  the 
encircled    islands   would   have    different  forms,   which   the 


VOLCANIC    ISLANDS.  149 

reefs  would  follow  continuously.  This  theory  perfectly 
explains  the  appearances  of  the  lagoon  islands  and  barrier 
reefs,  the  continuity  of  the  reef,  the  islands  in  the  middle  of 
the  lagoons,  the  different  distances  of  the  reefs  from  them, 
and  the  forms  of  the  archipelago  so  exactly  similar  to  the 
archipelagos  of  ordinary  islands,  all  of  which  are  but  the 
tops  of  submerged  mountain-chains,  and  generally  partake 
of  their  elongated  forms. 

Ev^ery  intermediate  form  between  an  atoll  and  an  encir- 
cling reef  exists;  New  Caledonia  is  a  link  between  them. 
A  reef  runs  along  the  north-western  coast  of  that  island  400 
miles,  and  for  many  leagues  never  approaches  within  8 
miles  of  its  shore,  and  the  distance  increases  to  16  miles 
near  the  so  ithern  extremity.  At  the  other  end  the  reefs  are 
continued  on  each  side  150  miles  beyond  the  submarine  pro- 
longation of  the  land  marking  the  former  extent  of  the  island. 
In  the  lagoon  of  Keeling  Atoll,  situate  in  the  Indian  Ocean 
600  miles  south  of  Sumatra,  many  fallen  trees  and  a  ruined 
store-house  show  that  it  has  subsided  :  these  movements 
take  place  during  the  earthquakes  at  Sumatra,  which  are 
also  felt  in  this  atoll.  Violent  earthquakes  have  lately  been 
felt  at  Vanikora,  a  lofty  island  with  an  encircling  reef  in  the 
western  part  of  the  South  Pacific,  and  on  which  there  are 
marks  of  recent  subsidence.  Other  proofs  are  not  wanting 
of  this  great  movement  in  the  beds  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian 
Oceans. 

The  extent  of  the  atoll  formations,  including  under  this 
name  encircling  reefs,  is  enormous.  In  the  Pacific,  from 
the  southern  end  of  Low  Archipelago  to  the  northern  end  of 
Marshall  Archipelago,  a  distance  of  4500  miles,  and  many 
degrees  of  latitude  in  breadth,  there  is  not  an  island  that  is 
not  of  atoll  formation.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  space 
in  the  Indian  Ocean  between  Saya  de  Matha  and  the  end  of 
the  Laccadives,  which  includes  25  degrees  of  latitude — 
such  are  the  enormous  areas  that  have  been,  and  probably 
still  are,  slowly  subsiding.  Other  spaces  of  great  extent 
may  also  be  mentioned — as  the  large  archipelago  of  the 
Carolinas,  that  in  the  Coralline  Sea  off  the  north-west  coast 
of  Australia,  and  an  extensive  one  in  the  China  Sea. 

Though  the  volcanic  islands  in  the  Pacific  are  so  nume- 
rous, there  is  not  one  within  the  areas  mentioned,  and  there 
is  not  an  active  volcano  within  several  hundred  miles  of  an 
13* 


150  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

archipelago,  or  even  group  of  atolls.  This  is  the  more  in- 
teresting, as  recent  shells  and  fringes  of  dead  coral,  found  at 
various  heights  on  their  surfaces,  show  that  the  volcanic 
islands  have  been  rising  more  and  more  above  the  surface 
of  the  ocean  for  a  very  long  time. 

The  volcanic  islands  also  occupy  particular  zones  in  the 
Pacific,  and  it  is  found  from  extensive  observation  that  all 
the  points  of  eruption  fall  on  the  areas  of  elevation. 

One  of  the  most  terribly  active  of  these  zones  begins  with 
the  Banda  group  of  islands,  and  includes  Timor,  Sumbawa, 
Bali,  Java,  and  Sumatra,  separated  only  by  narrow  channels, 
and  altogether  forming  a  gently  curved  line  2000  miles  long  ; 
but  as  the  volcanic  zone  is  continued  through  Barren  Island, 
in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  northward  to  an  island  off  the  Birmah 
coast,  the  entire  length  of  this  volcanic  range  is  a  great  deal 
more. 

The  little  island  of  Gounong-Api,  belonging  to  the  Banda 
group,  contains  a  volcano  of  great  activity  ;  and  such  is  the 
elevating  pressure  of  the  submarine  fire  in  that  part  of  the 
ocean,  that  a  mass  of  black  basalt  rose  up  of  such  magni- 
tude as  to  fill  a  bay  60  fathoms  deep  so  quietly  that  the 
inhabitants  were  not  aware  of  what  was  going  on  till  it  was 
nearly  done.  Timor  and  the  other  adjacent  islands  also 
bear  marks  of  recent  elevation. 

There  is  not  a  spot  of  its  size  on  the  face  of  the  earth  that 
contains  so  many  volcanoes  as  the  island  of  Java.*  A 
range  of  volcanic  mountains,  from  5000  to  13,000  feet  high, 
forms  the  central  crest  of  the  island,  and  ends  to  the  east  in 
a  series  of  38  separate  volcanoes  with  broad  bases  rising  gra- 
dually into  cones.  They  all  stand  on  a  plain  but  little  ele- 
vated above  the  sea,  and  each  individual  mountain  seems 
to  have  been  formed  independently  of  the  rest.  Most  of 
them  are  of  great  antiquity,  and  are  covered  with  thick 
vegetation.  Some  are  extinct  or  only  emit  smoke  ;  from 
others  sulphureous  vapours  issue  with  prodigious  violence  ;- 
one  has  a  large  crater  filled  with  boiling  water  ;  and  a  few 
have  had  fierce  eruptions  of  late  years.  The  island  is  covered 
with  volcanic  spurs  from  the  main  ridge,  united  by  cross 
chains,  together  with  other  chains  of  less  magnitude  but  no 
less  fury. 

*  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  on  Java. 


ACTIVE    VOLCANOES.  151 

In  1772  the  greater  part  of  one  of  the  largest  volcanic 
mountains  was  swallowed  up  after  a  short  but  severe  com- 
bustion :  a  luminous  cloud  enveloped  the  mountain  on  the 
11th  of  August,  and  soon  after  the  huge  mass  actually  dis- 
appeared under  the  earth  with  tremendous  noise,  carrying 
with  it  about  90  square  miles  of  the  surrounding  country,  40 
villages,  and  2957  of  their  inhabitants. 

The  northern  coast  of  Java  is  flat  and  swampy,  but  the 
southern  provinces  are  beautiful  and  romantic  ;  yet  in  the 
lovely  peaceful  valleys  the  stillness  of  night  is  disturbed 
by  the  deep  roaring  of  the  volcanoes,  many  of  which  are 
perpetually  burning  with  slow  but  terrific  action. 

Separated  by  narrow  channels  of  the  sea,  Bali  and  Sum- 
bawa  are  but  a  continuation  of  Java,  the  same  in  nature 
and  structure,  but  on  a  smaller  scale,  their  mountains  being 
little  more  than  8000  feet  high. 

The  intensity  of  the  volcanic  force  under  this  part  of  the 
Pacific  may  be  imagined  from  the  eruption  of  Tomboro  in 
Sumbawa  in  1815,  which  continued  from  the  5th  of  April 
till  July :  the  explosions  were  heard  at  the  distance  of  970 
miles  ;  and  in  Java,  at  the  distance  of  300  miles,  the  dark- 
ness during  the  day  was  like  that  of  deep  midnight.  The 
country  around  was  ruined,  and  the  town  of  Tomboro  was 
submerged  by  heavy  rollers  from  the  ocean. 

In  Sumatra  the  extensive  granitic  formations  of  eastern 
Asia  join  the  volcanic  series  which  occupies  so  large  a  por- 
tion of  the  Pacific.  This  most  beautiful  of  islands  presents 
the  boldest  aspect :  it  is  indented  by  arms  of  the  most  trans- 
parent sea,  and  watered  by  innumerable  streams  ;  it  displays 
in  its  vegetation  all  the  bright  colouring  of  the  tropics. 
Here  the  submarine  fire  finds  vent  in  three  volcanoes  on  the 
southern,  and  one  on  the  northern  side  of  the  island.  A 
few  atolls,  many  hundreds  of  miles  to  the  south,  show  that 
this  volcanic  zone  alternates  with  an  area  of  subsidence. 

More  to  the  north,  and  nearly  parallel  to  the  preceding 
zone,  another  line  of  volcanic  islands  begins  to  the  north  of 
New  Guinea,  and  passes  through  New  Britain,  New  Ireland, 
Solomon's  Islands,  and  the  New  Hebrides,  containing  many 
open  vents.  This  range,  or  area  of  elevation,  separates  the 
Coralline  Sea  from  the  great  chain  of  atolls  on  the  north 
between  Ellice's  group  and  the  Caroline  Islands,  so  that  it 
lies  between  two  areas  of  subsidence. 


/ 


152  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  third  and  greatest  of  all  the  zones  of  volcanic  islands 
besjins  at  the  northern  extremity  of  Celebes,  and  includes 
Gilolo,  one  of  the  Molucco  group,  which  is  bristled  with 
volcanic  cones  ;  and  from  thence  it  may  be  traced  north- 
wards through  the  Philippine  Islands  and  Formosa  :  bending 
thence  to  the  north-east,  it  passes  through  Loo  Choo,  the 
Japan  Archipelago,  and  is  continued  by  the  Kurile  Islands 
to  the  peninsula  of  Kamtschatka,  where  there  are  several 
active  volcanoes  of  great  elevation. 

The  Philippine  Islands  and  Formosa  form  the  volcanic 
separation  between  the  atoll  region  in  the  China  Sea  and 
that  of  the  Caroline  and  Pellew^  groups. 

There  are  six  islands  east  of  Jephoon,  in  the  Japan  Archi- 
pelago, which  are  subject  to  eruptions,  and  the  internal  fire 
breaks  through  the  Kurile  Islands  in  18  vents,  besides  having 
raised  two  new  islands  in  the  beginning  of  this  century,  one 
four  miles  round  and  the  other  3000  feet  high,  though  the 
ocean  there  is  so  deep  that  the  bottom  has  not  been  reached 
with  a  line  200  fathoms  long. 

Thus  some  long  rent  in  the  earth  had  reached  from  the 
tropics  to  the  gelid  seas  of  Okhotsk,  probably  connected 
with  the  peninsula  of  Kamtschatka  :  a  new  one  begins  to 
the  east  of  the  latter  in  the  Aleutian  Islands,  which  are  of 
the  most  barren  and  desolate  aspect,  perpetually  beaten  by 
the  surge  of  a  restless  ocean,  and  bristled  by  the  cones  of 
24  volcanoes ;  they  sweep  in  a  half-moon  round  Behring's 
Sea  till  they  join  the  volcanic  peninsula  of  Russian  Ame- 
rica. 

The  line  of  volcanic  agency  has  been  followed  far  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  coral  working  insects,  which  extend  but  a 
short  way  on  each  side  of  the  tropics  ;  but  it  has  been  shown 
that,  in  the  equatorial  regions,  immense  areas  of  elevation 
alternate  with  as  great  areas  of  subsidence  ;  north  of  New 
Holland  they  are  so  mixed  that  it  indicates  a  point  of  con- 
vergence.* 

On  the  other  side  of  the  Pacific  the  w'hole  chain  of  the 
Andes,  and  the  adjacent  islands  of  Juan  Fernandez  and 
the  Galapagos,  form  a  vast  volcanic  area,  which  is  actually 
now  rising.  And  though  there  are  few  volcanic  islands 
north  of  the  zone  of  atolls,  yet  those  that  be  indicate  great 

*   Darwin  on  Volcanic  Islands. 


ACTIVE    VOLCANOES, 


153 


internal  activity,  especially  the  Sandwich  Islands,  where  the 
volcanoes  of  Owhyhee  are  inferior  to  none  in  awful  sub- 
limity. 

It  may  be  observed  that,  where  there  are  coral  fringes, 
the  land  is  either  rising  or  stationary  ;  for,  were  it  subsiding, 
lagoons  would  be  formed.  On  the  contrary,  there  are  many 
fringing  reefs  on  the  shores  of  volcanic  islands  along  the 
coasts  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  West  In- 
dian islands,  all  of  which  are  rising.  Indeed,  this  occur- 
rence, in  numberless  instances,  coincides  with  the  exist- 
ence of  upraised  organic  remains  on  the  land. 

As  the  only  coral  formations  in  the  Atlantic  are  fringing 
reefs,  the  bed  of  that  ocean  is  not  sinking  ;  and,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Leeward  Islands,  the  Canaries,  and  Cape 
de  Verde  groups,  there  are  no  active  volcanoes  on  the  islands 
or  on  the  coasts  of  that  ocean.  The  Peak  of  Teneriffe  is  a 
splendid  instance. 

At  present  the  great  continent  has  few  centres  of  volcanic 
action  in  comparison  with  what  it  once  had.  The  Mediter- 
ranean is  still  undermined  by  fire,  which  occasionally  finds 
vent  in  Vesuvius  and  the  stately  cone  of  Etna.  Though 
Stromboli  constantly  pours  forth  an  inexhaustible  stream  of 
lava,  and  a  temporary  island  now  and  then  starts  up  from 
the  sea,  the  volcanic  action  is  diminished,  and  Italy  has  be- 
come comparatively  more  tranquil. 

The  table-land  of  western  Asia,  especially  Azerbijan,  had 
once  been  the  seat  of  intense  commotion,  now  spent,  or  only 
smoking  from  the  snowy  cone  of  Demavend.  The  table- 
land of  eastern  Asia  furnishes  the  solitary  instance  of  igneous 
explosion  at  a  distance  from  the  sea  in  the  volcanic  chain 
of  the  Thean-Tchan. 

The  seat  of  activity  has  been  perpetually  changing. 
There  always  has  been  volcanic  action,  possibly  more 
intense  in  former  times,  but  even  at  present  it  extends 
from  pole  to  pole. 

Notwithstanding  the  numerous  volcanic  vents  in  the 
globe,  many  places  are  subject  to  violent  earthquakes,  which 
ruin  the  works  of  man,  and   often  change  the  configuration 

f  the  country. 
Earthquakes  are  produced  by  fractures  and  sudden  heav- 
ings  and  subsidences  in  the  elastic  crust  of  the  globe,  from 
the  pressure  of  the  liquid  fire,  vapour,  and  gases  in  its  inte- 


154  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

rior,  which  there  find  vent,  relieve  the  tension  which  the 
strata  acquire  during  their  slow  refrigeration,  and  restore 
equilibrium.  But  whether  the  initial  impulse  be  eruptive, 
or  a  sudden  pressure  upwards,  the  shock  originating  in  that 
point  is  propagated  through  the  elastic  surface  of  the  earth 
in  a  series  of  circular  or  oval  undulations,  similar  to  those 
produced  by  dropping  a  stone  into  a  pool,  and  like  them 
they  become  broader  and  lower  as  the  distance  increases, 
till  they  gradually  subside  :  in  this  manner  the  shock  travels 
through  the  land,  becoming  weaker  and  weaker  till  it  ter- 
minates. When  the  impulse  begins  in  the  interior  of  a  con- 
tinent, the  elastic  wave  is  propagated  through  the  solid 
crust  of  the  earth,  as  well  as  in  sound  through  the  air,  and 
is  transmitted  from  the  former  to  the  ocean,  where  it  is 
finally  spent  and  lost,  or,  if  very  powerful,  is  continued  in 
the  opposite  land.  Almost  all  the  great  earthquakes  how- 
ever have  their  origin  in  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  far  from  land, 
whence  the  shocks  travel  in  undulations  to  the  surrounding 
shores. 

No  doubt  many  of  small  intensity  are  imperceptible  ;  it  is 
only  the  violent  efforts  of  the  internal  forces,  that  can  over- 
come the  pressure  of  the  ocean's  bed,  and  that  of  the  super- 
incumbent water.  The  internal  pressure  is  supposed  to  find 
relief  most  readily  in  a  belt  of  great  breadth  that  surrounds 
the  land  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  coast,  and, 
being  formed  of  its  debris,  the  internal  temperature  is  in  a 
perpetual  state  of  fluctuation,  which  would  seem  to  give 
rise  to  sudden  flexures  and  submarine  eruptions. 

When  the  original  impulse  is  a  fracture  or  eruption  of 
lava  in  the  bed  of  the  deep  ocean,  two  kinds  of  waves  or 
undulations  are  produced  and  propagated  simultaneously — 
one  through  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  which  is  the  true  earth- 
quake shock  :  and  coincident  with  this  a  wave  is  formed 
and  propagated  on  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  which  rolls  to 
the  shore,  and  reaches  it  in  time  to  complete  the  destruction 
long  after  the  shock  or  wave  through  the  solid  ocean-bed 
has  arrived  and  spent  itself  on  the  land.  The  height  to 
which  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  elevated,  or  the  vertical 
height  of  the  shock-wave,  varies  from  one  inch  to  two  or 
three  feet.  This  earth-wave,  on  passing  under  deep  water, 
is  imperceptible,  but  when  it  comes  to  soundings  it  carries 
with  it  to  the  land  a  long  flat  aqueous  wave  :   on  arriving  at 


EARTHQUAKES.  1 55 

the  beach  the  water  drops  in  arrear  from  the  superior  velo- 
city of  the  shock,  so  that  at  that  moment  the  sea  seems  to 
recede  before  the  great  ocean- wave  arrives. 

It  is  the  small  forced  wave  that  gives  the  shock  to  ships, 
and  not  the  great  wave;  but  when  ships  are  struck  in  very 
deep  water,  the  centre  of  disturbance  is  either  immediately 
under,  or  very  nearly  under,  the  vessel. 

Three  other  series  of  undulations  are  formed  simulta- 
neously with  the  preceding,  by  which  the  sound  of  the 
explosion  is  conveyed  through  the  earth,  the  ocean,  and 
the  air,  with  different  velocities.  That  through  the  earth 
travels  at  the  rate  of  from  7000  to  10,000  feet  in  a  second  in 
hard  rock,  and  somewhat  less  in  looser  materials,  and 
arrives  at  the  coast  a  short  time  before,  or  at  the  same  mo- 
ment with  the  shock,  and  produces  the  hollow  sounds  that 
are  the  harbingrers  of  ruin  ;  then  follows  a  continuous  sue- 
cession  of  sounds,  like  the  rolling  of  distant  thunder,  formed, 
first,  by  the  wave  that  is  propagated  through  the  water  of 
the  sea,  which  travels  at  the  rate  of  4700  feet  in  a  second  ; 
and,  lastly,  by  that  passing  through  the  air,  which  only 
takes  place  when  the  origin  of  the  earthquake  is  a  subma- 
rine explosion,  and  travels  with  a  velocity  of  1123  feet  in  a 
second.  The  rolling  sounds  precede  the  arrival  of  the 
great  wave  on  the  coasts,  and  are  continued  alter  the  terrific 
catastrophe  when  the  eruption  is  extensive. 

When  there  is  a  succession  of  shocks  all  the  phenomena 
are  repeated. 

The  velocity  of  the  great  oceanic  wave  varies  as  the 
square  root  of  the  depth  ;  it  consequently  has  a  rapid  pro- 
gress through  deep  water,  and  less  when  it  comes  to  sound- 
ings. The  velocity  of  the  shock  varies  with  the  elasticity  of 
the  strata  it  passes  through.  The  undulations  of  the  earth 
are  subject  to  the  same  laws  as  those  of  light  and  sound  ; 
hence  when  the  shock  or  earth-wave  passes  through  strata 
of  different  elasticity,  it  will  partly  be  reflected,  and  a  wave 
will  be  sent  back,  producing  a  shock  in  a  contrary  direction, 
and  partly  refracted,  or  its  course  changed  ;  so  that  shocks 
will  occur  both  upwards  and  downwards,  to  the  right  or  to 
the  left  of  the  original  line  of  transit.  Hence  most  damage 
is  done  at  the  junction  of  deep  alluvial  plains  with  the  hard 
strata  of  the  mountains,  as  in  the  great  earthquake  in  Cala- 
bria in  the  year  1783. 


156  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

When  the  height  of  the  undulations  is  small,  the  earth- 
quake will  be  a  horizontal  motion,  which  is  the  least  de- 
structive ;  when  the  height  is  great,  the  vertical  and  hori- 
zontal motions  are  conibined,  and  the  effect  is  terrible  ;  but 
the  worst  of  all  is  a  verticose  or  twisting  motion,  which 
nothing  can  resist.  It  is  occasioned  by  the  crossing  of  two 
waves  of  horizontal  vibration,  which  unite  at  their  point  of 
intersection  and  form  a  rotatory  movement.  This,  and  the 
interferences  of  shocks  arriving  at  the  same  point  from  dif- 
ferent origins  or  routes  of  different  length,  account  for  the 
repose  in  some  places,  and  those  extraordinary  phenomena 
that  took  place  during  the  earthquake  of  1783,  in  Calabria, 
where  the  shock  diverged  on  all  sides  from  a  centre  through 
a  highly  elastic  base  covered  with  alluvial  soil,  which  was 
tossed  about  in  every  direction.  The  dynamics  of  earth- 
quakes are  ably  discussed  by  Mr.  Mallet  in  a  very  interest- 
ing paper  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy. 

There  are  few  places  where  the  earth  is  long  at  rest ;  for, 
independently  of  those  secular  elevations  and  subsidences 
that  are  in  progress  over  such  extensive  tracts  of  country, 
small  earthquake  shocks  must  be  much  more  frequent  than 
we  imagine,  though  imperceptible  to  our  senses,  and  only 
to  be  detected  by  means  of  instruments.  The  shock  of  an 
earthquake  at  Lyons  in  February,  1822,  was  not  generally 
perceptible  at  Paris,  yet  the  wave  reached  and  passed  under 
that  city,  and  was  detected  by  the  swinging  of  the  large 
declination  needle  at  the  Observatory,  which  had  previously 
been  at  rest.  Even  in  Scotland  13rJ  slight  shocks  have  been 
registered  within  a  few  years,  of  which  81  occurred  at 
Comrie,  in  Perthshire,  but  the  cause  is  at  no  great  depth 
under  the  surface,  as  the  shocks  extended  to  a  small  dis- 
tance. 

The  undulations  of  some  of  the  great  earthquakes  have 
spread  to  an  enormous  extent :  that  which  destroyed  Lisbon 
had  its  origin  immediately  under  the  devoted  city,  from 
whence  the  shock  extended  over  an  area  of  about  700,000 
square  miles,  or  a  twelfth  part  of  the  circumference  of  the 
globe:  the  West  Indian  islands,  and  the  lakes  in  Scotland, 
Norway,  and  Sweden,  were  agitated  by  it.  It  began  without 
W'arning,  and  in  five  minutes  the  city  was  a  heap  of  ruins. 

'i'he  earthquake  of  1783,  in  Calabria,  which  completely 
changed  the  face  of  the   country,  lasted  only  two  minutes. 


THE    OCEAN. 


157 


but  it  was  not  very  extensive.  Baron  Humboldt's  works  are 
full  of  interesting  details  on  the  subject,  especially  with  re- 
gard to  the  tremendous  convulsions  in  South  America. 

Sometimes  a  shock  has  been  carried  underground  which 
was  not  felt  at  the  surface,  as  in  the  year  1802,  in  the  silver 
mine  of  Marienberg,  in  the  Hartz.  In  some  instances  miners 
have  been  insensible  to  shocks  felt  on  the  surface  above, 
which  happened  at  Fahlun,  in  Sweden,  in  1823— circum- 
stances depending,  in  both  instances,  on  the  elasticity  of  the 
strata,  the  depth  of  the  impulses,  or  obstacles  that  may  have 
changed  the  course  of  the  terrestrial  undulation.  During 
earthquakes,  dislocations  of  strata  take  place,  the  course  of 
rivers  is  changed,  and  in  some  instances  they  have  been 
permanently  dried  up,  rocks  are  hurled  down,  masses  raised 
up,  and  the  configuration  of  the  country  altered  ;  but  if  there 
be  no  fracture  at  the  point  of  original  impulse,  there  will  be 
no  noise. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


THE    OCEAN ITS    SIZE,    COLOUR,    PRESSURE,    AND    SALTNESS 

TIDES,      WAVES,      AND      CURRENTS TEMPERATURE  — NORTH 

AND    SOUTH    POLAR    ICE INLAND    SEAS. 

The  ocean,  which  fills  a  deep  cavity  in  the  globe  and  covers 
three-fourths  of  its  surface,  is  so  unequally  distributed 
that  there  is  three  times  more  land  in  the  northern  than  in 
the  southern  hemisphere.  The  torrid  zone  is  chiefly  occu- 
pied by  sea,  and  only  one  twenty-seventh  part  of  the  land 
on  one  side  of  the  earth  has  land  opposite  to  it  on  the  other. 
The  form  assumed  by  this  immense  mass  of  water  is  that  of 
a  spheroid  flattened  at  the  poles  ;  and  as  its  mean  level  is 
always  nearly  the  same,  for  any  thing  we  know  to  the  con- 
trary, it  serves  as  a  base  for  measuring  the  height  of  the 
land. 

The  bed  of  the  ocean,  like  that  of  the  land,  of  which  it 
is  the  continuation,  is  diversified  by  plains  and  mountains, 
table-lands  and  valleys,  sometimes  barren,  sometimes  covered 
with  marine  vegetation,  and  teeming  with  life.  Now  it 
sinks  into  depths,  which  the  sounding-line  has  never 
14 


158  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

fathomed,  now  it  appears  in  chains  of  island,  or  rises  near 
to  the  surface  in  hidden  reefs  and  shoals,  perilous  to  the 
mariner.  Springs  of  fresh  water  rise  from  the  bottom,  vol- 
canoes eject  their  lavas  and  scorise,  and  earthquakes  trouble 
the  deep  waters. 

The  ocean  is  continually  receiving  the  spoils  of  the  land, 
and  from  that  cause  would  constantly  be  decreasing  in  depth, 
and,  as  the  quantity  of  water  is  always  the  same,  its  super- 
ficial extent  would  increase  :  there  are  however  counter- 
acting causes  to  check  this  tendency  ;  the  secular  elevation 
of  the  land  over  extensive  tracts,  in  many  parts  of  the  world, 
is  one  of  the  most  important.*  Volcanoes,  coral  islands,  and 
barrier  reefs  show  that  great  changes  of  level  are  constantly 
taking  place  in  the  bed  of  the  ocean  itself,— that  symmetrical 
bands  of  subsidence  and  elevation  extend  alternately  over 
an  area  equal  to  a  hemisphere,  from  w^hich  it  may  be  con- 
cluded that  the  balance  is  always  maintained  between  the 
sea    and    land,   although   the   distribution  may  vary  in   the 

lapse  of  time. 

The  Pacific  or  Great  Ocean  exceeds  in  superficies  all  the 
dry  land  on  the  globe.  It  has  an  area  of  50,000,000  square 
miles:  including  the  Indian  Ocean  its  area  is  nearly 
70,000,000.  Its  breadth  from  Peru  to  the  coast  of  Africa 
is  16,000  miles:  it  is  shorter  than  the  Atlantic,  as  it  only 
communicates  with  the  Arctic  Ocean  by  Behring's  Strait, 
whereas  the  Atlantic,  as  far  as  we  know,  stretches  from  pole 

to  pole. 

The  continent  of  Australia  occupies  a  comparatively  small 
portion  of  the  Pacific,  while  innumerable  islands  stud  its 
surface  many  degrees  on  either  side  of  the  equator,  of  which 
a  great  number  are  volcanic,  showing  that  its  bed  has  been, 
and  indeed  actually  is,  the  theatre  of  violent  igneous  erup- 
tions. So  great  is  its  depth  that  a  line  five  miles  long  has 
not  reached  the  bottom  in  many  places.  Between  the  tropics 
it  is  generally  unfathomable  ;  yet,  as  the  whole  mass  of  the 
ocean  counts  for  little  in  the  total  amount  of  terrestrial  gravi- 
tation, its  mean  depth  is  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  radius  of 

the  globe. 

The  bed  of  the  Atlantic  is  a  long  deep  valley  with  few 
mountains,  or  at  least  but  few  that  raise   their   summits  in 

*   Darwin  on  Coral  Reefs. 


THE    OCEAN  I    ITS    PRESSURE.  159 

islands  above  its  surface.  Its  greatest  breadth,  including 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is  5000  miles,  and  its  superficial  extent 
is  about  25,000,000  square  miles.  This  sea  is  exceedingly 
deep.  In  27°  26'  S.  lat.  and  17°  29'  W.  long.  Sir  James 
Ross  found  the  depth  to  be  14,  550  feet  ;  450  miles  west 
from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  it  was  16,062  feet,  or  332  feet 
more  than  the  height  of  Mont  Blanc  ;  and  in  15°  3'  S.  lat. 
and  23°  14'  W.  long,  a  line  of  27,600  feet  did  not  reach 
the  bottom,  which  is  equal  to  the  height  of  some  of  the  most 
elevated  peaks  of  tlie  Himalaya,  but  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  many  parts  of  the  ocean  are  still  deeper.  A  great  part 
of  the  German  Ocean  is  only  93  feet  deep,  though  on  the 
Norwegian  side,  where  the  coast  is  bold,  the  depth  is  910 
fathoms. 

Immense  sand-banks  often  project  from  the  land,  which 
rise  from  great  depths  to  within  a  few  fathoms  of  the  surface. 
Of  these  the  Aghullus  Bank,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  is 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  :  that  off  Newfoundland  is  still 
greater;  it  consists  of  a  double  bank,  which  is  supposed  to 
reach  to  the  north  of  Scotland.  The  Dogger  Bank,  in  the 
North  Sea,  and  many  others,  are  well  known  :  some  on  the 
coast  of  Norway  are  surrounded  by  such  deep  water  that 
they  must  be  submarine  table-lands.  All  are  the  resort  of 
fish. 

The  pressure  at  great  depths  is  enormous.     In  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  where  the  specific   gravity  of  the  water   is  least,  on 
account  of  the  melting  of  the  ice,  the  pressure  at  the  depth 
of  a  mile  and  a  quarter  is  2809  pounds  on  a  square  inch  of 
surface  :  this  was  confirmed  by  Captain  Scoresby,  who  says, 
in  his  *'  Arctic  Voyages,"  that  the  wood  of  a  boat  suddenly 
dragged    to  a  great   depth   by   a   whale,  was   found   when 
drawn  up  so  saturated  with  water  forced  into  its  pores,  that 
it  sank  in  water  like  a  stone   for   a   year  afterwards:    even 
sea-water  is  reduced  in  bulk  from  20  to  19   solid   inches  at 
the   depth  of  20   fathoms.     The   compression  that  a  whale 
can  endure  is  wonderful.     All  fish  are  capable  of  sustaining 
great    pressures    as    well    as    sudden    changes   of   pressure. 
Divers  in  the    pearl-fisheries  exert  great  muscular  strength  ; 
but  man  cannot  bear  the  increased   pressure  at  great  depths, 
because  his  lungs   are   full  of  air,  nor  can   he  endure   the 
diminution  of  it  at  great  altitudes  above  the  earth. 

The  depth  to  which  the  sun's  light  penetrates  the  ocean 


160  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

depends  upon  the  transparency  of  the  water,  and  cannot  be 
less  than  twice  the  depth  to  which  a  person  can  see  from  the 
surface.  In  parts  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  shells  are  distinctly 
seen  at  the  depth  of  80  fathoms  ;  and  among  the  West  India 
islands,  in  30  fathoms  water,  the  bed  of  the  sea  is  as  clear 
as  if  seen  in  air:  shells,  corals,  and  sea-weeds  of  every  hue 
display  the  tints  of  the  rainbow. 

The  purest  spring  is  not  more  limpid  than  the  water  of  the 
ocean  :  it  absorbs  all  the  prismatic  colours  except  that  of  ul- 
tramarine, which,  being  reflected  in  every  direction,  imparts 
a  hue  approaching  the  azure  of  the  sky.  The  colour  of  the 
sea  varies  with  every  gleam  of  sunshine  or  passing  cloud, 
although  its  true  tint  is  always  the  same  when  seen  sheltered 
from  atmospheric  influence.  The  reflection  of  a  boat  on  the 
shady  side  is  often  of  the  clearest  blue,  while  the  surface  of 
the  water  exposed  to  the  sun  is  bright  as  burnished  gold. 
The  waters  of  the  ocean  also  derive  their  colour  from  insects 
of  the  infusorial  kind,  vegetable  substances,  and  minute  parti- 
cles of  matter.  It  is  white  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  black  round 
the  Maldives;  at  California  the  Vermilion  Sea  is  so  called 
on  account  of  the  red  colours  of  the  infusoria  it  contains:  the 
same  red  coloui:,was  observed  by  Magellan  at  the  mouth  of 
the  River  Plata.  The  Persian  Gulf  is  called  the  Green  Sea 
by  eastern  geographers,  and  there  is  a  tract  of  green  water 
off' the  Arabian  coast  so  distinct  that  a  ship  has  been  seen  in 
green  and  blue  water  at  the  same  time.  Rapid  transitions 
take  place  in  the  Arctic  Sea  from  ultramarine  to  olive-green, 
from  purity  to  opacity.  These  appearances  are  not  delusive, 
but  constant  as  to  place  and  colour:  the  green  is  produced 
by  myriads  of  minute  insects,  which  devour  one  another,  and 
are  a  prey  to  the  whale.  The  colour  of  clear  shallow  water 
depends  upon  that  of  its  bed  ;  over  chalk  or  white  sand  it  is 
apple-green,  over  yellow  sand  dark  green,  brown  or  black 
over  dark  ground,  and  grey  over  mud. 

The  sea  is  supposed  to  have  acquired  its  saline  principle 
when  the  globe  was  in  the  act  of  subsiding  from  a  gaseous 
state.  The  density  of  sea-water  depends  upon  the  quantity 
of  saline  matter  it  contains  :  the  proportion  is  generally  about 
three  or  four  per  cent.,  though  it  varies  in  ditFerent  places; 
the  ocean  contains  more  salt  in  the  southern  than  in  the 
northern  hemisphere,  the  Atlantic  more  than  the  Pacific. 
The  greatest  proportion  of  salt  in  the  Pacific  is  in  the  paral- 


THE    OCEAN  :    ITS    TIDES.  161 

lels  of  22°  N.  lat.  and  17°  S.  lat. :  near  the  equator  it  is  less  ; 
and  in  the  Polar  Seas  it  is  least,  from  the  melting  of  the  ice. 
The  saltness  varies  with  the  seasons  in  these  regions,  and 
the  fresh  water,  being  lighter,  is  uppermost.  Rain  makes 
the  surface  of  the  sea  fresher  than  the  interior  parts,  and  the 
influx  of  rivers  renders  the  ocean  less  salt  at  their  estuaries: 
the  Atlantic  is  brackish  300  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazons.  Deep  seas  are  more  saline  than  those  that  are 
shallow,  and  inland  seas  communicating  with  the  main  are 
less  salt,  from  the  rivers  that  flow  into  them:  to  this  however 
the  xMediterranean  is  an  exception,  occasioned  by  the  great 
evaporation  and  the  influx  of  salt  currents  from  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Atlantic.  The  water  in  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar, 
at  the  depth  of  670  fathoms,  is  four  times  as  salt  as  that  at 

the  surface. 

Fresh  water  freezes  at  the  temperature  of  32°  of  Fahren- 
heit; the  point  of  congelation  of  salt  w^ater  is  lower.  As  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  water  of  the  Greenland  Sea  is  about 
1-02664,  it  does  not  freeze  till  its  temperature  is  reduced  to 
28^°  of  Fahrenheit ;  so  that  the  saline  principle  preserves 
the  sea  in  a  liquid  state  to  a  much  higher  latitude  than  if  it 
had  been  fresh,  while  it  is  better  suited  for  navigation  by  its 
greater  buoyancy.  The  healthfulness  of  the  sea  is  ascribed 
to  the  mixing  of  the  water  by  tides  and  currents,  which  pre- 
vents the  accumulation  of  putrescent  matter. 

Raised  by  the  moon  and  modified  by  the  sun  in  the  equa- 
torial seas,  the  central  area  of  the  two  oceans  is  occupied  by 
a  great  tidal  wave,  which  oscillates  continually,  keeping  time 
with  the  returns  of  the  moon,  having  its  motion  kept  up  by 
her  attraction  acting  at  each  return.  The  height  of  these 
oceanic  tides  depends  upon  the  relative  position  of  the  sun 
and  moon,  and  upon  their  declination  and  distances  from  the 
earth.  From  the  skirts  of  this  oscillating  central  area,  par- 
tial tides  diverge  in  all  directions,  whose  velocity  depends 
upon  the  depth  and  local  circumstances  of  the  sea:  these 
derivative  tides  are  so  much  influenced  by  the  form  of  the 
shore  along  which  they  travel  that  they  become  of  great  mag- 
nitude in  the  higher  latitudes,  while  near  the  centre  of  the 
oscillating  area  the  oceanic  tide  is  often  very  small.  The 
spring-tides  rise  50  or  60  feet  on  some  parts  of  the  British 
coast;  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  in  Nova  Scotia,  they  rise  60 
feet ;  at  St.  Helena  they  never  exceed  three  feet ;  and  there 
14* 


162  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

is  scarcely  any  tide  among  many  of  the  tropical  islands  in 
the  Pacific. 

At  the  equator  the  tide  follows  the   moon   at  the  rate   of 
1000  miles  an  hour;  but  the  derivative  tides  are  so  retarded 
by  the  form  of  coasts  and  irregularities  at  the  bottom  of  the 
sea,  that  a  tide  is  sometimes  impeded   by  an  obstacle  till   a 
second  tide  reaches  the  same  point  by  a  different  course,  and 
the  water  rises  to  double  the  height  it  would  otherwise  have 
attained  :  a  complete  extinction  of  the  tide  takes  place  when 
a  hi^h-water  interferes  in  the  same  manner  with  a  low-water, 
as   in   the  centre  of  the  German  Ocean  ;  and  when   two  un- 
equal tides  of  contrary  phases  of  rise  and  flUl  meet,  the  greater 
overpowers  the  lesser,  and   the  resulting  height  is  equal  to 
their  difference  :   such  varieties  occur  chiefly  among  islands, 
and  at  the  estuaries  of  rivers.    When  the  tide  fiows  suddenly 
up  a  river,  it  checks  the  descent  of  the  stream,  so  that  a  high 
wave,  called  a  bore,  is  driven  with  force  up  the  channel. 
This  sometimes  occurs  in  the  Ganges  ;  and  in  the  Amazons, 
at  the  equinoxes,  during  three  successive  days,  five  of  these 
destructive  waves,  from  12  to  15  feet  high,  follow  one  ano- 
ther up  the  river  daily.    In  the  Turury  Channel,  in  Cayenne, 
the  sea  rises  40  feet  in  five  minutes,  and  as  suddenly  ebbs. 
There  may  be  some  small  flow  of  the  water  westward  with 
the  oceanic  tide  under  the  equator,  though  it  is  impercepti- 
ble :   but  that  does  not  necessarilv  follow,  since  the   tide  in 
the  open  ocean  is  merely  an  alternate  rise  and  fall  of  the  sur- 
face, so  that  the  motion^  not  the  water,  follows  the   moon. 
A  bird  resting  on  the  sea  is  not  carried  forward  as  the  waves 
rise  and  fall:   indeed,  if  so   heavy  a  body  as  water  were  to 
move  at  the   rate  of  1000  miles  in  an  hour,  it  would   cause 
universal  destruction,  ^ince   in  the   most  violent  hurricanes 
the  velocity  of  the  wind  hardly  exceeds  100  miles  an  hour. 
Over  shallows  however,  and   near  the  land,  the  water  does 
advance,  and  rolls  in  waves  on  the  beach. 

The  friction  of  the  wind  combines  w^ith  the  tides  in  agita- 
ting the  surface  of  the  ocean,  and,  according  to  the  theory 
of  undulations,  each  produces  its  effect  independently  of  the 
other;  wind,  however,  not  only  raises  waves,  but  causes  a 
transfer  of  superficial  water  also.  Attraction  between  the 
particles  of  air  and  water,  as  well  as  the  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere, brings  its  lower  stratum  into  adhesive  contact  with 
the  surface  of  the  sea.     If  the  motion  of  the  wind  be  parallel 


THE    OCEAN  I    ITS    WAVES.  163 

to  the  surface,  there  will  still  be  friction,  but  the  water  will 
be  smooth  as  a  mirror;  but  if  it  be  inclined,  in  however  small 
a  degree,  a  ripple  will  appear.  The  friction  raises  a  minute 
wave,  whose  elevation  protects  the  water  beyond  it  from  the 
wind,  which  consequently  impinges  on  the  surface  at  a  small 
angle  :  thus,  each  impulse  combining  with  the  other  produces 
an  undulation  which  continually  advances. 

Those  beautiful  silvery  streaks  on  the  surface  of  a  tranquil 
sea  called  catspaws  by  sailors  are  owing  to  a  partial  devia- 
tion of  the  wind  from  a  horizontal  direction.     The  resistance 
of  the  water  increases  with  the  strength  and    inclination  of 
the  wind.     The  agitation  at  first  extends  little  below  the  sur- 
face, but,  in   long-continued   gales,  even   the   deep  water  is 
troubled  :  the  billows  rise  higher  and  higher  ;  and  as  the  sur- 
face of  the  sea  is  driven  before  the  wind,  their  "  monstrous 
heads,"  impelled  beyond  the  perpendicular,  fall  in  wreaths 
of  foam.      Sometimes  several  waves  overtake  one  another, 
and  form  a  sublime  and  awful  sea.    The  highest  waves  known 
are  those  which  occur  during  a  north-west  gale  off  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  aptly  called  the  Cape  of  Storms  by  ancient 
Portuguese  navigators  ;  and  Cape  Horn  seems  to  be  the  abode 
of  the  tempest.     The  sublimity  of  the  scene,  united  to  the 
threatened  danger,  naturally  leads  to  an  over-estimate  of  the 
magnitude  of  the  waves,   which  appear  to  rise  mountains 
high,  as  they  are   proverbially  said  to  do.     There  is,  how- 
ever, reason    to  doubt  if  the  highest  waves  off  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  exceed   40  feet   from   the  hollow  trough  to    the 
summit.      They  are  said  to  rise  20  feet  off  Australia,  and  16 
feet  in  the  Mediterranean.     The  waves  are  short  and  abrupt 
in  small,  shallow  seas,  and  on  that  account  are  more  danger- 
ous than  the  long  rolling  billows  of  the  wide  ocean. 

The  undulation  called  a  ground-swell^  occasioned  by  the 
continuance  of  a  heavy  gale,  is  totally  different  from  the 
tossing  of  the  billows,  which  are  confined  to  the  area  vexed 
by  the  wind,  whereas  the  ground-swell  is  rapidly  transmitted 
through  the  ocean  to  regions  far  beyond  the  direct  influence 
of  the  gale  that  raised  it;  and  it  continues  to  heave  the 
smooth  and  glassy  surface  of  the  deep  long  after  the  wind 
and  the  billows  are  at  rest.  A  swell  frequently  comes  from 
a  quarter  in  direct  opposition  to  the  wind,  and  sometimes 
from  various  points  of  the  compass  at  the  same  time,  produ- 
cing a  vast  commotion  even  in  a  dead  calm,  without  ruflfling 


164  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  surface.  They  are  the  heralds  that  point  out  to  the  mari- 
ner the  distant  region  where  the  tempest  has  howled,  and 
they  are  not  unfrequently  the  harbingers  of  its  approach.  In 
addition  to  the  other  dangers  from  polar  ice,  there  is  always 
a  swell  at  its  margin. 

Heavy  swells  are  propagated  through  the  ocean,  till  they 
gradually  subside  from  the  friction  of  the  water,  or  till  the 
undulation  is  checked  by  the  resistance  of  land,  when  they 
roll  in  surf  to  the  shore,  or  dash  in  spray  and  foam  over 
rocks.  The  rollers  at  the  Cape  de  Verde  Islands,  are  seen 
at  a  great  distance  approaching  like  mountains.  When  a  ' 
gale  is  added  to  a  ground-swell,  the  commotion  is  great,  and 
the  force  of  the  surge  tremendous,  tossing  huge  masses  of 
rock  and  shaking  the  cliffs  to  their  foundation.  The  vio- 
lence of  the  tempest  is  sometimes  so  intense  as  to  quell  the 
billows  and  blow  the  water  out  of  the  sea,  driving  it  in  a 
heavy  shower  called  spoon-drift  by  sailors.  On  such  occa- 
sions saline  particles  have  impregnated  the  air  to  the  dis- 
tance of  50  miles  inland. 

The  effect  of  a  gale  descends  to  a  comparatively  small 
distance  below  the  surface  ;  the  sea  is  probably  tranquil  at 
the  depth  of  200  or  300  feet :  were  it  not  so,  the  water 
would  be  turbid  and  shell-fish  would  be  destroyed.  Any 
thing  that  diminishes  the  friction  of  the  wind  smooths  the 
surface  of  the  sea  :  for  example,  oil,  or  a  small  stream  of 
packed  ice,  which  suppresses  even  a  swell.  When  the  air 
is  moist  its  attraction  for  water  is  diminished,  and,  conse- 
quently, so  is  the  friction  ;  hence  the  sea  is  not  so  rough  in 
rainy  as  in  dry  weather. 

Currents  of  various  extent,  magnitude,  and  velocity  dis- 
turb the  tranquillity  of  the  ocean  ;  some  of  them  depend 
'  upon  circumstances  permanent  as  the  globe  itself,  others  on 
ever-varying  causes.  Constant  currents  are  produced  by 
the  combined  action  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  the  heat  of 
the  sun,  and  the  trade  winds  ;  periodical  currents  are  occa- 
sioned by  tides,  monsoons,  and  other  periodical  winds  ; 
temporary  currents  arise  from  the  tides,  melting  ice,  and 
from  every  gale  of  some  duration.  A  perpetual  circulation 
is  kept  up  in  the  waters  of  the  main  by  these  vast  marine 
streams.  They  are  sometimes  superficial,  sometimes  sub- 
marine, according  as  their  density  is  greater  or  less  than 
that  of  the  surrounding  sea. 


THE    OCEAN  *.    ITS    CURRENTS.  165 

The  exchange  of  water  between  the  poles  and  the  equator 
gives  rise  to  the  great  permanent  currents  in  the  ocean. 
Although  these  depend  upon  the  same  causes  as  the  trade 
winds,  they  differ  essentially  in  this  respect — that,  whereas 
the  atmosphere  is  heated  from  below  by  its  contact  with 
the  earth,  and  transmits  the  heat  to  the  strata  above,  the  sea 
is  heated  at  its  surface  by  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  which 
diminish  the  specific  gravity  of  the  upper  strata,  especially 
between  the  tropics,  and  also  occasion  strong  and  rapid 
evaporation,  both  of  which  causes  disturb  the  equilibrium  of 
the  ocean.  The  rotation  of  the  earth  also  gives  the  water  a 
tendency  to  take  an  oblique  direction  in  its  flow  towards 
the  equatorial  regions,  as,  in  order  to  restore  the  equilibrium, 
deranged  by  so  many  circumstances,  great  streams  perpetu- 
ally descend  from  either  pole  towards  the  equator.  When 
these  currents  leave  the  poles  they  flow  directly  north  and 
south  ;  but,  before  proceeding  far,  their  motion  is  deflected 
by  the  diurnal  rotation  of  the  earth.  At  the  poles  they  have 
no  rotatory  motion  ;  and  although  they  gain  it  more  and 
more  by  the  friction  of  the  water  in  their  progress  to  the 
equator,  which  revolves  at  the  rate  of  1000  miles  an  hour, 
they  arrive  at  the  tropics  before  they  have  acquired  the 
same  velocity  of  rotation  with  the  intertropical  ocean.  On 
that  account  they  are  left  behind,  and  consequently  seem  to 
flow  in  a  direction  contrary  to  the  diurnal  rotation  of  the 
earth.  For  that  reason  the  whole  surface  of  the  ocean,  for 
30  degrees  on  each  side  of  the  equator,  has  an  apparent 
tendency  from  east  to  west,  which  produces  all  the  effects 
of  a  great  current  or  stream  flowing  in  that  direction.  The 
trade  winds,  which  blow  constantly  nearly  the  same  way, 
combine  to  give  this  current  a  velocity  of  9  or  10  miles  in 
24  hours. 

It  is  evident  that  the  primary  currents,  as  well  as  those 
derived  from  them,  must  be  subject  to  periodical  variations 
of  intensity  of  six  months'  duration,  because  of  the  melting 
of  the  ice  at  each  pole  alternately. 

The  westerly  tendency  of  the  equatorial  current  in  the 
Atlantic  is  checked  by  the  continent  of  America,  which 
stretches  directly  across  its  course  ;  so  that  about  the  10th 
parallel  of  south  latitude  it  is  divided  by  the  coast  of  Brazil 
into  two  branches,  one  of  which  runs  south  and  the  other 
north-west.     The  latter  rushes  along  the  coast  of  Brazil  with 


166  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

such  force  and  depth  that  it  is  neither  deflected  by  the  power- 
ful  stream  of  the   river  Amazons  nor  that  of  the  Orinoco. 
Though  much  weakened  in  passing  among  the  West  Indian 
islands,   it   acquires   new  strength    and   the   high   tempera- 
ture of  86°   of  Fahrenheit   in   the  Caribbean   Sea.     From 
thence,  after  sweeping  round  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  it  flows 
through  the  State  of  Florida  and  along  the  North  American 
coast  to  Newfoundland  :   it  is  there  deflected  eastward  by 
the  diminished   velocity  of  rotation,  and   also  by  a  current 
from  Baffin's  Bay,  so  that  it  proceeds  to  the  Azores.     From 
thence  it  bends  southward,  and  rejoins  the  equatorial  cur- 
rent, having  formed  a  circuit  of  3800  miles  with  various 
velocity  and  a  breadth  of  from  50  to  250  miles,  leaving   a 
vast  loop  or  space  of  w'ater  nearly  stagnant  in    its  centre, 
Avhich  is  thickly  covered   with    sea-weed.     The  bodies  of 
men,  animals,  and  plants  of  unknown  appearance,  brought 
to  the  Azores  by  this  stream,  suggested  to  Columbus  the  idea 
of  land  beyond  the  Western  Ocean,  and  thus  led  to  his  dis- 
covery of  America.     The  Gulf  Stream  is  more  salt,  warmer, 
and  of  a  deeper  blue  than  the  rest  of  the  ocean,  till  it  reaches 
Newfoundland,  w^here  it   becomes  turbid  from  the  shallow- 
ness of  that  part  of  the  sea.     Its  greatest  velocity  is  78  miles 
a-day  soon  after  leaving  the  Florida  Strait,  and  its  greatest 
breath  is   120  miles,  though  the  warm   water  spreads  over 
the  surface  of  the  ocean  to  a  much  greater  extent.     An  im- 
portant branch  leaves  this  current  near  Newfoundland,  set- 
ting towards  Britain  and  Norway,  which  is  again  subdivided 
into   many   branches,  whose   origin    is  recognised   by   their 
greater  warmth,  even  at  the   edge  of  perpetual   ice  in  the 
Polar  Ocean,  while  they  tend  in  some  degree,  by  their  super- 
ficial direction,  to  prevent  the  ice  from  spreading  over  the 
North  Sea  ;  and  in  consequence  of  some  of  these    branches 
the  Spitzbergen  Sea  is  6°  or  7°  warmer  at  the  depth  of  200 
fathoms  than  it  is  at  the   surface.     The  other  branch  of  the 
equatorial  stream,  after  setting  southward  along  the  coast  of 
Brazil,  becomes  insensible    before   reaching  the    Straits   of 
Magellan. 

In  the  Pacific  Ocean  a  current  comes  from  the  south  pole 
along  the  shores  of  Chili  and  Peru  to  Mexico,  having  in 
some  seasons  a  temperature  24°  below  that  of  the  Equatorial 
Sea.  From  Mexico,  aided  by  the  equatorial  current  of  the 
Great  Ocean,  it  crosses  the  Pacific  w^ith  so  strong  a  stream, 


THE    OCEAN  :    ITS    CURRENTS.  167 

that  ships  passing  from  Acapuico  to  Manilla  rarely  have 
occasion  to  set  their  sails.  Branches  flow  on  each  side  of 
Australia,  which  unite  and  run  through  the  Bay  of  Bengal 
to  the  extremity  of  the  Indian  peninsula  ;  one  part  then 
strikes  across  the  ocean,  another  and  greater  flows  through 
the  Mozambique  Channel  :  these  currents  then  unite  in  a 
stream  100  miles  broad,  and  the  greater  part,  called  the 
Lagullus  Current,  doubles  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
rushes  down  the  coast  of  Africa,  till  it  joins  the  equatorial 
current  of  the  Atlantic.  These  oceanic  streams  exceed  all 
the  rivers  in  the  w^orld  in  breadth  and  depth,  as  well  as 
length.  The  equatorial  current  in  the  Atlantic  is  160  miles 
broad  off  the  coast  of  Africa,  but  towards  its  mid-course, 
across  the  Atlantic,  its  width  becomes  nearly  equal  to  the 
whole  length  of  Great  Britain  ;  but  as  it  then  sends  off  a 
branch  to  the  N.W.,  it  is  diminished  to  200  miles  before 
reaching  the  coast  of  Brazil.  The  depth  of  this  great  stream 
is  unknown,  but  the  Brazilian  branch  must  be  very  profound, 
since  it  is  not  deflected  by  the  river  La  Plata,  which  crosses 
it  with  so  strong  a  current  that  its  fresh  muddy  waters  are 
perceptible  500  miles  from  its  mouth.  When  currents  pass 
over  banks  and  shoals,  the  colder  water  rises  to  the  surface, 
and  ogives  warnincj  of  the  dantjer. 

The  action  of  these  oceanic  rivers  has  been  very  great  on 
the  eastern  sides  of  both  continents,  w^here  they  have  scooped 
out  bays  and  gulfs,  and  torn  off  many  islands  from  the  land : 
indeed,  the  whole  earth  bears  the  marks  of  a  great  current 
rushing  with  violence  from  the  east. 

Under-currents  are  supposed  to  flow  in  many  places  in  a 
direction  opposite  to  the  set  of  the  water  on  the  surface,  but 
of  these  little  is  known.  In  summer,  the  great  north  polar 
current  coming  along  the  coast  of  Greenland  and  Labrador, 
together  with  the  current  from  Davis's  Straits,  brings  icebergs 
to  the  margin  of  the  Gulf  Stream  and  disappear.  Probably 
from  their  density  they  become  under-currents  which  pass  to 
lower  latitudes.  Counter-currents  on  the  surface  are  of  such 
frequent  occurrence  that  there  is  scarcely  a  strait  joining  two 
seas  that  does  not  furnish  an  example — a  current  running  in 
along  one  shore,  and  a  counter-current  running  out  along 
the  other. 

Periodical  currents  are  frequent  in  the  eastern  seas :  one 
flows  into  the  Red  Sea  from  October  to  May,  and  out  of  it 


168  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

from  May  to  October  ;  in  the  Persian  Gulf  this  order  is  re- 
versed. In  the  Indian  Ocean  and  China  Sea  the  waters  are 
driven  alternately  backwards  and  forwards  by  the  monsoons. 
It  is  the  south-westerly  monsoon  that  causes  inundations  in 
the  Ganges  and  a  tremendous  surf  on  the  coast  of  Coro- 
mandel.  The  tides  also  produce  periodical  currents  on  the 
coasts  and  in  straits,  the  water  running  in  one  direction 
during  the  flood,  and  the  contrary  way  in  the  ebb.  The 
Roost  of  Sumbury,  at  the  southern  promontory  of  Zetland, 
runs  at  the  rate  of  15  miles  an  hour  ;  indeed  the  strongest 
tidal  currents  known  are  among  the  Orkney  and  Zetland 
islands  ;  their  great  velocity  arises  from  local  circumstances. 
Currents  in  the  wide  ocean  move  at  the  rate  of  from  one  to 
three  miles  an  hour,  and  the  velocity  is  less  at  the  margin 
and  bottom  of  the  stream  from  friction. 

Whirlpools  are  produced  by  opposing  winds  and  tides: 
the  whirlpool  of  Maelstrom,  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  is  occa- 
sioned by  the  meeting  of  tidal  currents  round  the  islands  of 
Logodon  and  Maskoe  ;  it  is  a  mile  and  a  half  in  diameter, 
and  so  violent  that  its  roar  is  heard  at  the  distance  of  several 
leagues. 

Although,  with  winds,  tides,  and  currents,  it  might  seem 
that  the  ocean  is  ever  in  motion,  yet  in  the  equatorial 
regions,  far  from  land,  dead  calms  prevail  ;  the  sea  is  of 
the  most  perfect  stillness  day  after  day,  rarely  does  a  shower 
fall,  thunder  is  almost  never  heard,  and  the  winds  are  at 
rest.  The  sea  partakes  of  the  universal  quiet,  and  heaves 
its  low  flat  waves  in  noiseless  and  regular  periods,  as  if 
nature  were  asleep. 

Salt  water  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  therefore  the  tem- 
perature of  the  ocean  is  less  liable  to  sudden  changes  than 
the  atmosphere  :  the  influence  of  the  season  is  imperceptible 
at  the  depth  of  300  feet  ;  and  as  the  light  probably  does 
not  penetrate  lower  than  700  feet,  the  heat  of  the  sun  cannot 
aflect  the  bottom  of  a  deep  sea.  It  has  been  established 
beyond  a  doubt  by  Kotzebue  and  Sir  James  Ross,  that 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  deep  ocean  the  water  has  an 
invariable  temperature  of  about  39°  5'  of  Fahrenheit  at  a 
certain  depth  depending  on  the  latitude.  At  the  equator  the 
*  stratum  of  invariable  temperature  is  at  the  depth  of  7200 
feet;  from  thence  it  gradually  rises  till  it  comes  to  the  sur- 
face in  S.  lat.  56°  26',  where  the  water  has  the  temperature 


THE    OCEAN  '.    ITS    TEMPERATURE.  169 

of  39°  5',  at  all  depths;   it   then   gradually  descends   to  S. 
lat.  70°,  where  it  is  4500  feet  below  the  surface. 

In  going  north  from  the  equator  the  same  law  is  observed  : 
hence  with  regard  to  temperature  there  are  three  regions  in 
the  ocean,  one  equatorial  and  two  polar.      In  the  equatorial 
region  the  temperature  of  the  water  at  the  surface  of  the 
ocean  is  80%  therefore  higher  than   that  of  invariable  tem- 
perature, while  in  the  polar  regions  it  is  lower.     Thus  the 
surface  of  the   stratum  of  constant  temperature    is    a   curve 
which   begins   at    the    depth  of  4500    feet   in   the   southern 
basin,  from  whence  it  gradually  rises  to  the   surface    in  S. 
lat.  56°  26' ;  it  then  sweeps  down  to  7200  feet  at  the  equator, 
and    rises    up    again   to  the    surface   in    the   corresponding 
northern  latitude,  from  whenge  it  descends  again  to  a  depth 
of  4500  feet  in   the   northern   basin.     From   these   circum- 
stances Sir  James  Ross  justly  infers  that  the  internal  heat  of 
the  earth  has  no  influence  upon  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
ocean.     The  temperature   of  the   surface  of  the  ocean   de- 
creases from  the    equator  to   the   poles.     For  ten    degrees 
on  each  side  of  the  line  the   maximum   is  80°  of  Fahren- 
heit,  and    remarkably  staple  ;    from  thence  the  decrease  to 
each  tropic  does  not  exceed  37°.     The  tropical  tempera- 
ture would  be  greater  were  it  not   for  the  currents,  because 
the  surface  reflects  much  fewer  of  the  sun's   rays,  that  fall 
on  it  directly,  than  that  in  higher  latitudes,  where  they  fall 
obliquely.     In  the  torrid  zone  the  surface  of  the  sea  is  about 
35°  of  Fahrenheit  warmer  than  the  air  above  it,  because  the 
polar  winds,  and   the  great  evaporation  which   absorbs  the 
heat,  prevent  equilibrium  ;  and  as  a   great   mas^  of  water  is 
slow  in  following  the  changes  in  the  atmosphere,  the  vicis- 
situde of  day  and  night  has  little  influence,  whereas  in  the 
temperate  zones  it  is  perceptible. 

The  superficial  temperature  diminishes  from  the  tropics 
as  the  latitude  increases,  more  rapidly  in  the  southern  than 
in  the  northern  hemisphere,  till  towards  each  pole  the  sea 
becomes  a  solid  mass  of  ice.  In  the  Arctic  Ocean  the  sur- 
face is  at  the  freezing  point  even  in  summer,  and  during 
the  eight  winter  months  a  continuous  body  of  ice  extends 
in  every  direction  from  the  pole,  filling  the  area  of  a  circle 
of  between  2000  and  4000  miles  in  diameter.  The  outline 
of  this  circle,  though  subject  to  partial  variations,  is  found 
to  be  nearly  similar  at  the  same  season  of  each  succeeding 
15 


170  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

year,  yet  there  are  periodical  changes  in  the  polar  ice,  which 
are  renewed  after  a  series  of  years.  The  freezing  process 
itself  is  a  bar  to  the  unlimited  increase  of  the  oceanic  ice. 
Fresh  water  congeals  at  the  temperature  of  32°  of  Fahren- 
heit, but  sea-water  must  be  reduced  to  28°  5'  before  it  de- 
posits its  salt  and  begins  to  freeze  :  the  salt  thus  set  free, 
and  the  heat  given  out,  retard  the  process  of  congelation 
more  and  more  below. 

The  ice  from  the  north  pole  comes  so  far  south  in  winter 
as  to  render  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  inaccessible  :  it 
envelops  Greenland,  sometimes  even  Iceland,  and  always 
invests  Spitzbergen  and  Nova  Zembla.  As  the  sun  comes 
north  the  ice  breaks  up  into  enormous  masses  of  what  is 
called  packed  ice.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  a  fine  summer 
the  ice  suddenly  clears  away,  and  leaves  an  open  channel 
of  sea  along  the  western  coast  of  Spitzbergen  from  60  to 
150mileswide,extendingto80°or  even  80J°N.lat., probably 
owing  to  warm  currents  from  low  latitudes.  In  the  year 
1806  Captain  Scoresby  forced  his  ship  through  250  miles  of 
packed  ice,  in  imminent  danger,  until  he  reached  the  parallel 
of  81°  50,  his  nearest  approach  to  the  pole:  the  Frozen 
Ocean  is  rarely  navigable  so  far. 

In  the  year  1827  Sir  Edward  Parry  arrived  at  the  latitude 
of  82°  45',  which  he  accomplished  by  dragging  a  boat  over 
fields  of  solid  ice,  but  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  the  bold 
and  hazardous  attempt  to  reach  the  pole,  because  the  current 
drifted  the  ice  southward  more  rapidly  than  he  could  travel 
over  it  to  the  north. 

Floating  fields  of  ice  20  or  30  miles  in  diameter  are  fre- 
quent in  the  Arctic  Ocean  ;  sometimes  they  extend  100 
miles,  so  closely  packed  together  that  no  opening  is  left 
between  them  ;  their  thickness,  which  varies  from  10  to  40 
feet,  is  not  seen,  as  there  is  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  mass 
below  water.  Sometimes  these  fields,  many  thousand  mil- 
lions of  tons  in  weight,  acquire  a  rotatory  motion  of  great 
velocity,  dashing  against  one  another  with  a  tremendous 
collision.  Packed  ice  always  has  a  tendency  to  drift  south- 
wards, even  in  the  calmest  weather  ;  and  in  their  progress 
the  ice-fields  are  rent  in  pieces  by  the  swell  of  the  sea.  It 
is  computed  that  20,000  square  miles  of  drift  ice  are  annually 
brought  by  the  current  along  the  coast  of  Greenland  to  Cape 
Farewell.     In  stormy  weather  the  fields  and  streams  of  ice 


POLAR    ICE. 


171 


are  covered  with  haze  and  spray  from  constant  tremendous 
concussions  ;  yet  our  seamen,  undismayed  by  the  appalling 
danger,  boldly  steer  their  ships  amidst  this  hideous  and  dis- 
cordant tumult. 

Huge  icebergs  are  rolled  from  the  glaciers  which  extend 
miles  from  the  arctic  lands  into  the  sea,  especially  in  Baffin's 
Bay,  and  are  drifted  southwards  2000  miles  from  their  origin 
to  melt  in  the  Atlantic,  where  they  cool  the  water  sensibly 
for  40  or  50  miles  around,  and  the  air  to  a  much  greater 
distance.  They  vary  from  a  few  yards  to  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  rise  hundreds  of  feet  above  the  surface.  Seven 
hundred  such  masses  have  been  seen  at  once  in  the  polar 
basin.  When  there  is  a  swell  the  loose  ice  dashing  against 
them  raises  the  spray  to  their  very  summits  ;  and  if  a  large 
mass  fails  from  them,  they  occasionally  lose  their  equilibrium 
and  roll  over,  causing  a  swell  which  breaks  up  the  neigh- 
bouring field-ice  :  the  commotion  then  spreads  far  and  wide, 
and  the  uproar  resounds  for  miles  like  thunder. 

Icebergs  have  the  appearance  of  chalk-cliffs  with  a  glit- 
tering surface  and  emerald-green  fractures  ;  pools  of  water 
of  azure-blue  lie  on  their  surface,  or  fall  in  cascades  into 
the  sea.  The  field-ice  also,  and  the  masses  that  are  heaped 
up  on  its  surface,  are  extremely  beautiful  from  the  vividness 
and  contrast  of  their  colouring.  A  peculiar  blackness  in 
the  atmosphere  indicates  their  position  in  a  fog,  and  their 
place  and  character  are  shown  at  night  by  the  reflection  of 
the  snow-light  on  the  horizon.  An  experienced  seaman 
can  readily  distinguish  whether  the  ice  is  newly  formed, 
heavy,  compact,  or  open.  The  blink  or  snow-light  of  field- 
ice  is  the  most  lucid,  and  is  tinged  yellow  ;  of  packed  ice  it 
is  pure  white:  ice  newly  formed  has  a  greyish  blink;  and 
a  deep  yellow  tint  indicates  snow  on  land. 

Icebergs  come  to  a  lower  latitude  by  10°  from  the  south 
pole  than  from  the  north,  and  appear  to  be  larger.  One 
observed  by  Captain  d'Urville  was  13  miles  long,  with  per- 
pendicular sides  100  feet  high.  They  are  less  varied  than 
those  on  the  northern  seas;  a  tabular  form  is  prevalent. 
The  discovery  ships  under  the  command  of  Sir  James  Ross 
met  with  multitudes  bounded  by  perpendicular  cliffs  on  every 
side  with  fiat  surfaces  from  100  to  180  feet  high,  sometimes 
several  miles  in  circumference.  On  one  occasion  they  fell  in 
with  a  chain  of  stupendous  bergs  close  to  one  another,  ex- 


172  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

tending  farther  than  the  eye  could  reach  even  from  the 
mast-head.  Packed  ice,  too,  is  in  immense  quantities : 
these  ships  forced  their  way  through  a  pack  1000  miles 
broad,  often  under  the  most  appalling  circumstances.  It 
generally  consists  of  smaller  pieces  than  the  packs  in  the 
comparatively  tranquil  North  Polar  seas,  where  they  are 
often  several  miles  in  diameter,  and  where  fields  of  ice 
extend  beyond  the  extent  of  vision.  The  Antarctic  Ocean, 
on  the  contrary,  is  almost  always  agitated  ;  there  is  a  per- 
petual swell,  and  terrific  storms  are  common,  which  break 
up  the  ice  and  render  navigation  perilous.  The  pieces  are 
rarely  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  circumference,  and  generally 
much  smaller. 

A  more  dreadful  situation  can  hardly  be  imagined  than 
that  of  ships  beset  during  a  tempest  in  a  dense  pack  of  ice 
in  a  dark  night,  thick  fog  and  drifting  snow,  with  the  spray 
beating  perpetually  over  the  decks,  and  freezing  instanta- 
neously. Sir  James  Ross's  own  words  can  alone  give  an 
idea  of  the  terrors  of  one  of  the  many  gales  which  the  two 
ships  under  his  command  encountered:  "Soon  after  mid- 
night our  ships  were  involved  in  an  ocean  of  rolling  frag- 
ments of  ice,  hard  as  floating  rocks  of  granite,  which  were 
dashed  against  them  by  the  waves  with  so  much  violence, 
that  their  masts  quivered  as  if  they  would  fall  at  every  suc- 
cessive blow  ;  and  the  destruction  of  the  ships  seemed  in- 
evitable from  the  tremendous  shocks  they  received.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  storm  the  rudder  of  the  '  Erebus'  was  so 
much  damaged  as  to  be  no  longer  of  any  use  ;  and  about 
the  same  time  I  was  informed  by  signal  that  the  '  Terror's' 
was  completely  destroyed,  and  nearly  torn  away  from  the 
stern-post.  Hour  passed  away  after  hour  without  the  least 
mitigation  of  the  awful  circumstances  in  which  we  were 
placed.  The  loud  crashing  noise  of  the  straining  and  w^ork- 
ing  of  the  timber  and  decks,  as  they  were  driven  against 
some  of  the  heavier  pieces  of  ice,  w^hich  all  the  exertions  of 
our  people  could  not  prevent,  was  sufficient  to  fill  the  stout- 
est heart,  that  was  not  supported  by  trust  in  Him  who  con- 
trols all  events,  with  dismay  ;  and  I  should  commit  an  act 
of  injustice  to  my  companions  if  I  did  not  express  my  admi- 
ration of  their  conduct  on  this  trying  occasion.  Throughout 
a  period  of  28  hours,  during  any  one  of  which  there  ap- 
peared to  be  very  little  hope   that  w^e  should  live  to  see  an- 


INLAND    SEAS.  173 

other,  the  coolness,  steady  obedience,  and  untiring  exertions 
of  each  individual,  were  every  way  worthy  of  British  sea- 
men. 

"  The  storm  gained  its  height  at  2  p.m.,  when  the  baro- 
meter stood  at  28*40  inches,  and  after  that  time  began  to 
rise.  Although  we  had  been  forced  many  miles  deeper  into 
the  pack,  we  could  not  perceive  that  the  swell  had  at  all 
subsided,  our  ships  still  rolling  and  groaning  amidst  the 
heavy  fragments  of  crushing  bergs,  over  which  the  ocean 
rolled  its  mountainous  waves,  throwing  huge  masses  one 
upon  another,  and  then  again  burying  them  deep  beneath 
its  foaming  waters,  dashing  and  grinding  them  together  with 
fearful  violence." 

For  three  successive  years  were  these  dangers  encountered 
during  this  bold  and  hazardous  enterprise. 

The  ocean  is  one  mass  of  water,  which,  entering  into  the 
interior  of  the  continents,  has  formed  seas  and  gulfs  of  great 
magnitude,  which  afford  easy  and  rapid  means  of  communi- 
cation, while  they  temper  the  climates  of  the  widely  expand- 
ing continents. 

The  inland  seas  communicating  with  the  Atlantic  are 
larger,  and  penetrate  more  deeply  into  the  continents,  than 
those  connected  with  the  Great  Ocean  ;  a  circumstance  that 
gives  a  coast  of  48,000  miles  to  the  former,  while  that  of  the 
Great  Ocean  is  only  44,000.  Most  of  these  internal  seas 
have  extensive  river  domains,  so  that  by  inland  navigation 
the  Atlantic  virtually  enters  into  the  deepest  recesses  of  the 
land,  brings  remote  regions  into  contact,  and  improves  the 
condition  of  the  less  cultivated  races  of  mankind  by  commer- 
cial intercourse  with  those  that  are  more  civilised. 

The  Baltic,  which  occupies  125,000  square  miles  in  the 
centre  of  Northern  Europe,  is  one  of  the  most  important  of 
the  inland  seas  connected  with  the  Atlantic  ;  and  although 
inferior  to  the  others  in  size,  the  drainage  of  more  than  a 
fifth  of  Europe  flows  into  it.  Only  about  a  fourth  part  of 
the  boundary  of  its  enormous  basin  of  900,000  square  miles 
is  mountainous;  and  so  many  navigable  rivers  flow  into  it 
from  the  watershed  of  the  great  European  plain,  that  its 
waters  are  one-fifth  less  salt  than  those  of  the  Atlantic  :  it 
receives  at  least  250  streams.  Its  depth  nowhere  exceeds 
115  fathoms,  and  generally  it  is  not  more  than  40  or  50. 
From  that  cause,  together  with  its  freshness  and  northern 
15* 


174  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

latitude,  the  Baltic  is  frozen  five  months  in  the  year.  From 
the  flatness  of  the  greater  part  of  the  adjacent  country,  the 
climate  of  the  Baltic  is  subject  to  influences  coming  from 
regions  far  beyond  the  limits  of  its  river-basin.  The  winds 
from  the  Atlantic  bring  warmth  and  moisture,  which,  con- 
densed by  the  cold  blasts  from  the  Arctic  plains,  falls  in  rain 
in  summer,  and  deep  snow  in  winter,  which  also  makes  the 
sea  more  fresh.  The  tides  are  imperceptible  ;  but  the  waters 
of  the  Baltic  occasionally  rise  more  than  three  feet  above 
their  usual  level  from  some  unknown  cause — possibly  from 
oscillations  in  its  bed,  or  from  changes  of  atmospheric  pres- 
sure. 

The  Black  Sea,  which  penetrates  most  deeply  into  the 
continent  of  all  the  seas  in  question,  has,  together  with  the 
Sea  of  Azow%  an  area  of  190,000  square  miles  ;  but  it  must 
at  a  remote  period  have  been  united  with  the  Caspian  Lake, 
and  must  have  covered  all  the  steppe  of  Astracan.  It  re- 
ceives some  of  the  largest  European  rivers,  and  drains  about 
950,000  square  miles  ;  consequently  its  w^aters  are  brackish, 
and  freeze  on  its  northern  shores  in  winter. 

Of  all  the  branches  of  the  Atlantic  that  enter  deeply  into 
the  bosom  of  the  land,  the  Mediterranean  is  the  most  beau- 
tiful and  the  largest,  covering  with  its  dark  blue  waters 
more  than  760,000  square  miles.  Situate  in  a  comparatively 
low  latitude,  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  African  deserts  on 
the  south,  and  sheltered  on  the  north  by  the  Alps,  the  eva- 
poration is  excessive.  Its  temperature  is  10°  or  12°  higher 
than  that  of  the  Atlantic.  Although  its  own  river  domain  is 
only  250,000  square  miles,  the  constant  current  that  sets 
into  it  through  the  Dardanelles  brings  a  great  part  of  the 
drainage  of  the  Black  Sea,  so  that  it  is  really  fed  by  the 
melted  snow^  and  rivers  from  the  Caucasus,  Asia  Minor, 
Abyssinia,  the  Atlas,  and  the  Alps.  Yet  the  quantity  of 
water  that  flows  into  the  Mediterranean  from  the  Atlantic  by 
the  central  current  in  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  exceeds  that 
w^hich  goes  out  by  the  lateral  ones.  In  consequence  of  the 
excessive  evaporation,  the  water  of  the  Mediterranean  is 
four  times  as  salt  as  that  of  the  ocean. 

The  Mediterranean  is  divided  into  two  basins  by  a  shal- 
low^ that  runs  from  Cape  Bon  on  the  African  coast  to  the 
Strait  of  Messina,  on  each  side  of  which  the  water  is  ex- 
ceedingly deep,  and  said  to  be  unfathomable  in  some  parts. 


INLAND    SEAS.  175 

This  sea  is  not  absolutely  without  tides  ;  in  the  Gulf  of 
Venice  they  rise  to  three  feet,  and  at  the  Great  Syrte  to  five  at 
new  and  full  moon  ;  but  in  most  other  places  they  are  scarcely 
perceptible.  The  surface  is  traversed  by  various  currents  ; 
two  of  which,  opposing  one  another,  occasion  the  celebrated 
whirlpool  of  Charybdis,  whose  terrors  were  much  dimi- 
nished by  the  earthquake  of  1783.  Its  bed  is  subject  to 
violent  volcanic  paroxysms  ;  and  its  surface  is  studded  with 
islands  of  all  sizes,  from  the  magnificent  kingdom  of  Sicily 
to  mere  barren  rocks  ;  some  actively  volcanic,  others  of  vol- 
canic formation,  and  many  of  the  secondary  geological 
period. 

Various  parts  of  its  coasts  are  in  a  state  of  great  insta- 
bility ;  in  some  places  they  have  sunk  down  and  risen  again 
more  than  once  within  historical  record. 

Far  to  the  north  the  Atlantic  penetrates  the  American  con- 
tinent by  Davis's  Straits,  and  spreads  out  into  Baffin's  Bay, 
twice  the  size  of  the  Baltic,  very  deep,  and  subject  to  all  the 
rigours  of  an  arctic  winter — the  very  storehouse  of  Icebergs, 
the  abode  of  the  walrus  and  whale.  Hudson's  Bay,  though 
without  the  Arctic  circle,  is  but  little  less  dreary. 

Very  diflferent  is  the  character  of  those  vast  seas  where 
the  Atlantic  comes"  cranking  in"  between  the  northern  and 
southern  continents  of  America.  The  surface  of  the  sea  in 
Baffin's  Bay  is  seldom  above  the  freezing  point;  here,  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  always  89°  of  Fahrenheit ;  while  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  in  the  same  latitude,  is  not  above  77°  or  78°.  Of 
that  huge  mass  of  water  partially  separated  from  the  Atlantic 
by  a  long  line  of  islands  and  banks,  the  Caribbean  Sea  is  the 
largest.  It  is  as  long  from  east  to  west  as  the  distance  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  Newfoundland,  and  occupies  a  mil- 
lion of  square  miles.  Its  depth  is  very  great  in  many  places, 
and  its  water  limpid.  The  Gulf  of  Mexico,  fed  by  the  Mis- 
sissippi, one  of  the  greatest  of  rivers,  is  more  than  half  its 
size,  or  about  625,000  square  miles,  so  that  the  whole  forms 
a  sea  of  great  magnitude.  Its  shores,  and  the  shores  of  the 
numerous  islands,  are  dangerous  from  shoals  and  coral  reefs  ; 
but  the  interior  of  these  seas  is  not.  Tlie  trade  winds  pre- 
vail there;  they  are  subject  to  severe  northern  gales;  and 
some  parts  are  occasionally  visited  by  tremendous  hurricanes. 
The  Pacific  does  not  penetrate  the  land  in  the  same  man- 
ner that  the  Atlantic  does  the  continent  of  Europe.     The 


176  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Red  Sea  and  Persian  Gulf  are  joined  to  it  by  very  narrow 
straits;  but  almost  all  the  internal  seas  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  Asia,  except  the  Yellow  Sea,  are  great  gulfs  shut  in  by 
islands,  like  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  :  to 
which  the  China  Sea  (the  Toung-Hai),  the  Sea  of  Japan,  and 
that  of  Okhotsk,  are  perfectly  analogous. 

The  set  of  the  great  oceanic  currents  has  scooped  out  and 
indented  the  southern  and  eastern  coasts  of  the  Asiatic  con- 
tinent into  enormous  bays  and  gulfs,  and  has  separated  large 
portions  of  the  land,  which  now  remain  as  islands — a  process 
which  probably  has  been  increased  by  the  submarine  fires 
extending  along  the  eastern  coast  from  the  equator  nearly  to 
the  Arctic  circle. 

The  perpetual  motion  of  the  ocean  by  winds,  tides,  and 
currents,  is  continually  but  slowly  changing  the  form  and  po- 
sition of  the  land — steadily  producing  those  vicissitudes  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  to  which  it  has  been  subject  for  ages, 
and  to  which  it  will  assuredly  be  liable  in  all  time  to  come. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

SPRINGS BASINS  OF  THE  OCEAN ORIGIN,  COURSE,  AND  FLOODS 

OF     RIVERS HYDRAULIC     SYSTEMS     OF     EUROPE AFRICAN 

RIVERS;    THE    NILE,    NIGER,    ETC. 

The  vapour  which  rises  invisibly  from  the  land  and  water 
ascends  in  the  atmosphere  till  it  is  condensed  by  the  cold 
into  clouds,  which  restore  it  again  to  the  earth  in  the  form 
of  rain,  hail,  and  snow:  hence  there  is  probably  not  a  drop 
of  water  on  the  globe  that  has  not  been  borne  on  the  wings 
of  the  wind.  Part  of  this  moisture  restored  to  the  earth  is 
reabsorbed  by  the  air,  part  supplies  the  wants  of  animal  and 
vegetable  life,  a  portion  is  carried  ofT  by  streams,  and  the 
remaining  part  percolates  through  porous  soils  till  it  arrives 
at  a  stratum  impervious  to  water,  where  it  accumulates  in 
subterranean  lakes  often  of  great  extent.  The  mountains 
receive  the  greatest  portion  of  the  aerial  moisture,  and,  from 
the  many  alternations  of  permeable  and  impermeable  strata 
they  contain,  a  complete  system  of  reservoirs  is  formed  in 


SPRINGS. 


177 


them,  which,  continually  overflowing,  form  perennial  springs 
at  different  elevations,  that  unite  and  run  down  their  sides 
in  incipient  rivers.  A  great  portion  of  the  water  at  these 
high  levels  penetrates  the  earth  till  it  comes  to  an  imperme- 
able stratum  below  the  plains,  where  it  collects  in  a  sheet, 
and  is  forced  by  hydrostatic  pressure  to  rise  in  springs  through 
cracks  in  the  ground  to  the  surface.  In  this  manner  the 
water  which  falls  on  hills  and  mountains  is  carried  through 
highly  inclined  strata  to  great  depths,  and  even  below  the 
bed  of  the  ocean,  in  many  parts  of  which  there  are  springs 
of  fresh  water.  In  boring  artesian  wells  the  water  often 
rushes  up  with  such  impetuosity  by  the  hydrostatic  pressure 
as  to  form  jets  40  or  50  feet  high.  In  this  operation  several 
successive  reservoirs  have  been  met  with  :  at  St.  Ouen,  in 
France,  five  sheets  of  water  were  found  ;  the  water  in  the 
four  first  not  being  good,  the  operation  was  continued  to  a 
greater  depth.  It  consists  merely  in  boring  a  hole  of  small 
diameter,  and  lining  it  with  a  tube.  It  rarely  happens  that 
water  may  not  be  procured  in  this  way  ;  and  as  the  substra- 
tum in  many  parts  of  deserts  is  an  argillaceous  marl,  it  is 
probable  that  artesian  wells  might  be  bored  with  success. 

A  spring  will  be  intermittent  when  it  issues  from  an  open- 
ing in  the  side  of  a  reservoir  fed  from  above  if  the  supply  be 
not  equal  to  the  waste,  for  the  water  will  sink  below  the 
opening,  and  the  spring  will  stop  till  the  reservoir  is  reple- 
nished. Few  springs  give  the  same  quantity  of  water  at  all 
times  ;  they  also  vary  much  in  the  quantity  of  foreign  matter 
they  contain.  Mountain  springs  are  generally  very  pure  ; 
the  carbonic  acid  gas  almost  always  found  in  them  goes  into 
the  atmosphere,  and  their  earthy  matter  is  deposited  as  they 
run  along,  so  that  river-water  from  such  sources  is  soft,  while 
wells  and  springs  in  the  plains  are  hard  and  more  or  less 
mineral. 

The  water  of  springs  takes  its  temperature  from  that  of  the 
strata  through  which  it  passes.  Mountain  springs  are  cold, 
but,  if  the  water  has  penetrated  deep  into  the  earth,  it  ac- 
quires a  temperature  depending  on  that  circumstance. 

The  temperature  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  varies  with  the 
seasons  to  a  certain  depth,  where  it  becomes  permanent  and 
equal  to  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  air  above.  It 
is  evident  that  the  depth  at  which  this  stratum  of  invariable 
temperature  lies  must  vary  wuh  the  latitude.    At  the  equator 


178  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  effect  of  the  seasons  is  imperceptible  at  the  depth  of  a  foot 
below  the  surface  ;  between  the  parallels  of  40°  and  52°  the 
temperature  of  the  ground  in  Europe  is  constant  at  the  depth 
of  from  55  to  60  feet;  and  in  the  high  Arctic  regions  the  soil 
is  perpetually  frozen  a  foot  below  the  surface.    Now%  in  every 
part  of  the  world  where  experiments  have   been   made,  the 
temperature  of  the  earth  increases  with  the  depth  below  the 
constant  stratum  at  the  rate  of  1°  of  Fahrenheit  for  every  50 
or  60  feet  of  perpendicular  depth  :  hence,  should  the  increase 
continue  to  follow  the  same  ratio,  even  granite  must  be  in 
fusion  at  little  more  than  five   miles  below  the  surface.     In 
Siberia  the  stratum  of  frozen  earth  is  some  hundred  feet  thick, 
but  below  that  the  increase  of  heat  with  the  depth  is  three 
times  as  rapid  as  in  Europe.     The  temperature  of  springs 
must  therefore  depend  on  the  depth  to  which  the  water  has 
penetrated  before  it  has  been  forced  to  the  surface  either  by 
the  hydraulic  pressure  of  water  at  higher  levels  or  by  steam. 
If  it  never  goes  below  the  stratum  of  invariable  temperature, 
the  heat  of  the  spring  will  vary  w^ith  the  seasons  more  or  less 
according  to  the  depth  below  the  surface  ;  should  the  water 
come  from  the  constant  stratum   itself,  its  temperature  w'ill 
be  invariable  ;  and  if  from  below  it,  the  heat  will  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  depth  to  which  it  has  penetrated.     Thus  there 
may  be  hot  and  even  boiling  springs  hundreds  of  miles  dis- 
tant from  volcanic  action  and  volcanic  strata,  of  which  there 
are  many  examples,  though  they  are  more  frequent  in  vol- 
canic countries  and  those  subject  to  earthquakes.     The  tem- 
perature of  hot  springs  is  very  constant,  and  that  of  boiling 
springs  has  remained  unchanged  for  ages:   shocks  of  earth- 
quakes sometimes  affect  their  temperature,  and  have   even 
stopped  them  altogether.     Jets  of  steam  of  high  tension  are 
frequent  in  volcanic  countries,  as  in  Iceland. 

Both  hot  and  cold  water  dissolves  and  combines  with  many 
of  the  mineral  substances  it  meets  with  in  the  earth,  and 
comes  to  the  surface  from  great  depths  as  medicinal  springs, 
containing  various  ingredients.  So  numerous  are  they  that 
in  the  Austrian  dominions  alone  there  are  1500,  and  few 
countries  of  any  extent  are  destitute  of  them.  They  contain 
sulphuric  and  carbonic  acids,  sulphur,  iron,  magnesia,  and 
other  matters.  Boiling  springs  deposit  silex,  as  in  Iceland, 
Italy,  and  in  the  Azores;  and  others  of  lower  temperature 
deposit  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  lime  in  enormous  quanti- 


RIVERS.  179 

ties  all  over  the  world.  Springs  of  pure  brine  are  very  rare  ; 
those  in  Cheshire  are  rich  in  salt,  and  have  flowed  unchanged 
1000  years,  a  proof  of  the  tranquil  state  of  that  part  of  the 
globe.  Many  substances  that  lie  beyond  oar  reach  are 
brought  to  the  surface  by  springs,  as  naphtha,  petroleum,  and 
borax;  petroleum  is  particularly  abundant  in  Persia,  and 
numberless  springs  and  lakes  of  it  surround  some  parts  of  the 
Caspian  Sea.  It  is  found  in  immense  quantities  in  various 
parts  of  the  world. 

RIVERS. 

Rivers  have  had  a  greater  influence  in  the  location  and 
fortunes  of  the  human  race  than  almost  any  other  physical 
cause  ;  and  since  their  velocity  has  been  overcome  by 
steam  navigation,  they  have  become  the  highway  of  the 
nations. 

They  frequently  rise  in  lakes  which  they  unite  with  the 
sea  ;  in  other  instances  they  spring  from  small  elevations  in 
the  plains,  from  perennial  sources  in  the  mountains,  alpine 
lakes,  melted  snow,  and  glaciers,  but  the  everlasting  store- 
houses of  the  mightiest  floods  are  the  ice-clad  mountains  of 
table-land. 

Rivers  are  constantly  increased,  in  descending  the  moun- 
tains and  traversing  the  plains,  by  tributaries,  till  at  last 
they  flow  into  the  ocean,  their  ultimate  destination  and 
remote  origin.  "  All  rivers  run  into  the  sea,  yet  the  sea  is 
not  full,"  because  it  gives  in  evaporation  an  equivalent  for 
what  it  receives. 

The  Atlantic,  the  Arctic,  and  the  Pacific  Oceans,  are 
directly  or  indirectly  the  recipients  of  all  the  rivers,  therefore 
their  basins  are  bounded  by  the  principal  watersheds  of  the 
continents  :  for  the  basin  of  a  sea  or  ocean  does  not  mean 
only  the  bed  actually  occupied  by  the  water,  but  compre- 
hends also  all  the  land  drained  bv  the  rivers  which  fall  into 
it,  and  is  bounded  by  an  imaginary  line  passing  through  all 
their  sources.  These  lines  generally  run  through  the  elevated 
parts  of  a  country  that  divide  the  streams  which  flow  in  one 
direction  from  those  that  flow  in  another.  But  the  water- 
shed does  not  coincide  in  all  cases  with  mountain-crests  of 
great  elevation,  as  the  mere  convexity  of  a  plain  is  often 
sufficient  to  throw  the  streams  into  different  directions. 


180  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

None  of  the  European  rivers  flowing  directly  into  the 
Atlantic  exceed  the  4th  or  5th  nriagnitude,  except  the  Rhine  ; 
the  rest  of  the  principal  streams  come  to  it  indirectly  through 
the  Baltic,  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Mediterranean.  It 
nevertheless  drains  nearly  half  of  the  old  continent,  and 
almost  all  the  new,  because  the  Andes  and  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, which  form  the  watershed  of  the  American  continent, 
lie  along  its  western  side,  and  the  rivers  which  rise  on  the 
western  slope  of  the  Alleghanies  are  tributaries  to  the  Mis- 
sissippi, which  comes  indirectly  into  the  Atlantic  by  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  Arctic  Ocean  drains  the  high  northern  latitudes  of 
America,  and  receives  those  magnificent  Siberian  rivers,  that 
originate  in  the  Altai  range  from  the  steppe  of  the  Kerghis 
to  ?he  extremity  of  Kamtschatka,  as  well  as  the  very  inferior 
streams  of  North  European  Russia.  The  running  w^aters  of 
the  rest  of  the  world  merge  in  the  Pacific.  The  Caspian 
and  Lake  of  Aral  are  mere  lakes,  which  receive  rivers  but 
emit  none. 

Mountain-torrents  gradually  lose  velocity  in  their  descent 
to  the  low  lands  by  friction,  and  when  they  enter  the  plains 
their  course  becomes  still  more  gentle,  their  beds  smoother, 
and  their  depth  greater.  A  slope  of  one  foot  in  200  pre- 
vents a  river  from  being  navigable,  and  a  greater  inclination 
forms  a  rapid  or  a  cataract.  The  speed,  however,  does  not 
depend  upon  the  slope  alone,  but  also  upon  the  height  of 
the  source  of  the  river,  and  the  pressure  of  the  body  of 
water  in  the  upper  part  of  its  course  ;  consequently,  under 
the  same  circumstances,  large  rivers  run  faster  than  small, 
but  in  each  individual  stream  the  velocity  is  perpetually 
varying  with  the  form  of  the  banks,  the  winding  of  the  course, 
and  the  changes  in  the  width  of  the  channel.  The  Rhone, 
one  of  the  most  rapid  European  rivers,  has  a  declivity  of 
one  foot  in  2620,  and  flows  at  the  rate  of  120  feet  in  a 
minute  ;  the  sluggish  rivers  in  Flanders  have  only  half  that 
velocity.  The  Danube,  the  Tigris,  and  Indus  are  among 
the  most  rapid  of  the  large  rivers. 

When  one  river  falls  into  another,  the  depth  and  velocity 
are  increased,  but  not  always  proportionally  to  the  width  of 
the  channel,  which  sometimes  even  becomes  less,  as  at  the 
junction  of  the  Ohio  with  the  Mississippi.  When  the  angle 
of  junction  is  very  obtuse,  and  the  velocity  of  the  tributary 


FLOODS    OF    RIVERS. 


181 


stream  great,  it  sometimes  forces  the  water  of  its  primary 
to  recede  a  short  distance.  The  Arve,  swollen  by  a  freshet, 
occasionally  drives  the  water  of  the  Rhone  back  into  the 
Lake  of  Geneva  ;  and  it  once  happened  that  the  force  was 
so  great  as  to  make  the  mill-wheels  revolve  in  a  contrary 
direction. 

Instances  have  occurred  of  rivers  suddenly  stopping  in 
their  course  for  some  hours,  and  leaving  their  channels  dry. 
On  the  26th  of  November,  1838,  the  water  failed  so  com- 
pletely in  the  Clyde,  Nith,  and  Tiviot,  that  the  mills  were 
stopped  eight  hours  in  the  lower  part  of  their  streams.  The 
cause  was  the  coincidence  of  a  gale  of  wind  and  a  strong 
frost,  which  congealed  the  water  near  their  sources.  Exactly 
the  contrary  happens  in  the  Siberian  rivers,  which  flow  from 
south  to  north  over  so  many  hundreds  of  miles  ;  the  upper 
parts  are  thawed,  while  the  lower  are  still  frozen,  and  the 
water,  not  finding  an  outlet,  inundates  the  country. 

The  alluvial  soil  carried  down  by  streams  is  gradually 
deposited  as  their  velocity  diminishes  ;  and  if  they  are  sub- 
ject to  inundations,  and  the  coast  flat,  it  forms  deltas  at  their 
mouths.  There  they  generally  divide  into  two  branches, 
which  often  join  again,  or  are  united  by  transverse  channels, 
so  that  a  labyrinth  of  streams  and  islands  is  formed.  Deltas 
are  sometimes  found  in  the  interior  of  the  continents,  at  the 
junction  of  rivers,  exactly  similar  to  those  on  the  ocean, 
though  less  extensive. 

Tides  flow  up  rivers  to  a  great  distance,  and  to  a  height 
far  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  tide  is  perceptible  in 
the  river  of  the  Amazons  576  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  it 
ascends  255  miles  in  the  Orinoco. 

In  the  temperate  zones  rivers  are  subject  to  floods  from 
autumnal  rains  and  the  melting  of  the  snow,  especially  on 
mountain-ranges.  The  Po,  for  example,  spreads  desolation 
far  and  wide  over  the  plains  of  Lombardy  ;  but  these  tor- 
rents are  as  variable  in  their  recurrence  and  extent  as  the 
climate  which  produces  them.  The  inundations  of  the 
rivers  in  the  torrid  zone,  on  the  contrary,  occur  with  that 
regularity  peculiar  to  a  region  in  which  meteoric  phenomena 
are  uniform  in  all  their  changes.  These  floods  are  due  to 
the  periodical  rains  which,  in  tropical  countries,  follow  the 
cessation  of  the  trade- winds  after  the  equinox  of  spring  and 
at  the  turn  of  the  monsoons,  and  are  thus  dependent  on  the 
16 


J 82  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

declination  of  the  sun,  the  immediate  cause  of  all  these 
variations.  The  melting  of  the  snow,  no  doubt,  adds  greatly 
to  the  floods  of  the  tropical  rivers  which  rise  in  the  high 
mountain-chains,  but  it  is  only  an  accessory  circumstance  ; 
for  although  the  snow-water  from  the  Himalaya  swells  the 
streams  considerably  before  the  rains  begin,  yet  the  principal 
effect  is  owing  to  the  latter,  as  the  southern  face  of  the 
Himalaya  is  not  beyond  the  influence  of  the  monsoon,  and 
the  consequent  periodical  rains,  w^hich  besides  prevail  all 
over  the  plains  of  India  traversed  by  the  great  rivers  and 
their  tributaries. 

Under  like  circumstances,  the  floods  of  rivers,  whose 
sources  have  the  same  tropical  latitude,  take  place  at  the 
same  season  ;  but  the  periods  of  the  inundations  of  rivers  on 
one  side  of  the  equator  are  exactly  the  contrary  of  what  they 
are  in  rivers  on  the  other  side  of  it,  on  account  of  the  de- 
clination of  the  sun.  The  flood  in  the  Orinoco  is  at  its 
greatest  heigh.t  in  the  month  of  August,  while  that  of  the 
river  of  the  Amazons,  south  of  the  equinoctial  line,  is  at  its 
greatest  elevation  in  March.*  The  commencement  and  end 
of  the  annual  inundations  in  each  river  depend  upon  the 
mean  time  of  the  beginning,  and  on  the  duration  of  the  rains 
in  the  latitudes  traversed  by  its  affluents.  The  periods  of 
the  floods  of  such  rivers  as  run  towards  the  equator  are  dif- 
ferent from  those  flowing  in  an  opposite  direction  ;  and  as 
the  swell  requires  time  to  travel,  it  happens  at  regular  but 
different  periods  in  various  parts  of  the  same  river,  if  very 
long.  The  height  to  which  the  water  rises  in  the  annual 
floods  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  country,  but  it  is 
wonderfully  constant  in  each  individual  river  where  the 
course  is  long ;  for  the  inequalities  in  the  quantity  of  rain 
in  a  district  drained  by  any  of  its  affluents  is  imperceptible 
in  the  general  flood,  and  thus  the  quantity  of  water  carried 
down  is  a  measure  of  the  mean  humidity  of  the  whole 
country  comprised  in  its  basin  from  year  to  year.  By  the 
admirable  arrangement  of  these  periodical  inundations,  the 
fresh  soil  of  the  mountains,  borne  down  by  the  water,  en- 
riches countries,  far  remote  from  their  source.  The  Moun- 
tains of  the  Moon,  and  of  Abyssinia,  have  fertilized  the 
banks  of  the  Nile  through  a  distance  of  2500  miles  for 
thousands  of  years. 

*  Baron  Humboldt's  Personal  Narrative. 


BIFURCATION    OF    RIVERS.  183 

When  rivers  rise  in  mountains,  water  communication  be- 
tween them  in  the  upper  parts  of  their  course  is  impossible; 
but  when  they  descend  to  the  plains,  or  rise  in  the  low  lands, 
the  boundaries  between  the  countries  drained  by  them  be- 
come low,  and  the  different  systems  may  be  united  by  canals. 
It  sometimes  happens,  in  extensive  and  very  level  plains, 
that  the  tributaries  of  the  principal  streams  either  unite  or  are 
connected  by  a  natural  canal,  by  which  a  communication  is 
formed  between  the  two  basins — a  circumstance  advantageous 
to  the  navigation  and  commerce  of  both,  especially  where 
the  junction  takes  place  far  inland,  as  in  the  Orinoco  and 
Amazons,  in  the  interior  of  South  America.  The  Rio  Negro, 
one  of  the  largest  affluents  of  the  latter,  is  united  to  the  Upper 
Orinoco,  in  the  plains  of  Esmeralda,  by  the  Cassiquiare — a 
stream  as  large  as  the  Rhine,  with  a  velocity  of  12  feet  in  a 
second.  Baron  Humboldt  observes  that  the  Orinoco  sending 
a  branch  to  the  Amazons  is,  with  regard  to  distance,  as  if  the 
Rhine  should  send  one  to  the  Seine  or  Loire.  x\t  some  fu- 
ture period  this  junction  will  be  of  great  importance.  These 
bifurcations  are  frequent  in  the  deltas  of  rivers,  but  very  rare 
in  the  interior  of  continents.  The  Mahomuddy  and  Gada- 
very,in  Hindostan,  seem  to  have  something  of  the  kind,  and 
there  are  several  instances  in  the  great  rivers  of  the  Indo- 
Chinese  peninsula. 

The  hydraulic  system  of  Europe  is  eminently  favourable 
to  inland  navigation,  small  as  the  rivers  are  in  comparison 
with  those  in  other  parts  of  the  world  ;  but  the  flatness  of  the 
great  plain,  and  the  lownessof  its  watershed,  are  very  favour- 
able to  the  construction  of  canals.  In  the  west,  however, 
the  Alps  and  German  mountains  divide  the  waters  that  flow 
to  the  Atlantic  on  one  side,  and  to  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Black  Sea  on  the  other;  but  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Europe 
the  division  of  the  waters  is  merely  a  more  elevated  ridge  of 
the  plain  itself,  for  in  all  plains  such  undulations  exist,  though 
often  imperceptible  to  the  eye.  This  watershed  begins  on 
the  northern  declivity  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  about 
the  23d  meridian,  on  a  low  range  of  hills  running  between 
the  sources  of  the  Dnieper  and  the  tributaries  of  the  Vistula, 
from  whence  it  winds  in  a  tortuous  course  along  the  plain  to 
the  Valday  table-land,  which  is  its  highest  point,  1200  feet 
above  the  sea.  It  then  declines  northward  towards  Onega, 
about  the  60th  parallel,  and  lastly  turns  in  a  very  serpentine 


184  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

line  to  the  sources  of  the  Kama,  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  near 
the  62(1  degree  of  north  latitude.  The  waters  north  of  this  line 
run  into  the  Baltic  and  White  Sea,  and  on  the  south  of  it 
into  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian. 

Thus  Europe  is  divided  into  two  principal  hydraulic  sys- 
tems ;  but  since  the  basin  of  a  river  comprehends  all  the 
plains  and  valleys  drained  by  it  and  its  tributaries,  from  its 
source  to  the  sea,  each  country  is  subdivided  into  as  many 
natural  divisions  or  basins  as  it  has  primary  rivers,  and  these 
generally  comprise  all  the  rich  and  habitable  parts  of  the 
earth,  and  are  the  principal  centres  of  civilization,  or  are  ca- 
pable of  becoming  so. 

The  streams  to  the  north  of  the  general  watershed  are  very 
numerous;  those  to  the  south  are  of  greater  magnitude.  The 
systems  of  the  Volga  and  Danube  are  the  most  extensive  in 
Europe:  the  former  has  a  basin  comprising  640,000  square 
miles,  and  is  navigable  throughout  the  greater  part  of  its 
course  of  1900  miles. 

The  Danube  drains  300,000  square  miles,  and  has  60  navi- 
gable tributaries.  It  rises  in  the  Black  Forest  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  3000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  so  that  it  has 
considerable  velocity,  which,  as  well  as  rocks  and  rapids, 
impede  its  navigation  in  many  places;  but  it  is  navigable 
downwards,  through  Austria,  for  600  miles  to  New  Orsova, 
from  whence  it  flows  in  a  gentle  current  to  the  Black  Sea. 
The  commercial  importance  of  these  two  rivers  is  much  in- 
creased by  their  flowing  into  inland  seas.  By  canals  between 
the  Volga  and  the  rivers  north  of  the  watershed,  the  Baltic 
and  White  Sea  are  connected  with  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Caspian,  and  the  Baltic  and  Black  Sea  are  also  connected 
by  a  canal  between  the  Don  and  the  Dnieper.  Altogether 
the  water  system  of  Russia  is  the  most  extensive  in  Europe. 

The  whole  of  Holland  is  a  collection  of  deltoid  islands, 
formed  by  the  Rhine,  the  Meuse,  and  the  Scheldt ;  a  struc- 
ture very  favourable  to  commerce,  and  has  facilitated  an  ex- 
tensive internal  navigation.  The  Mediterranean  is  already 
connected  with  the  North  Sea  by  the  junction  canal  of  the 
Rhone  and  the  Rhine,  and  this  noble  system,  extended  over 
the  whole  of  France  by  7591  miles  of  canals,  has  conduced 
mainly  to  the  improved  state  of  that  great  country. 

Many  navigable  streams  rise  in  the  Spanish  mountains  : 
of  these  the  Tagus  has  depth  enough  for  the  largest  ships. 


HYDRAULIC  SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  185 

In  point  of  magnitude,  however,  many  are  of  the  inferior 
orders,  but  canals  have  rendered  them  beneficial  to  the  coun- 
try. Italy  is  less  fortunate  in  her  rivers,  which  only  admit 
of  vessels  of  small  burthen.  Those  in  the  north  are  by  much 
the  most  important,  especially  the  Po  and  its  ^tributaries, 
which,  by  steam-boats,  connect  Venice  and  Milan  with  va- 
rious fertile  provinces  of  central  Italy;  but  whatever  advan- 
tages nature  has  afforded  to  the  Italian  states  have  been  im- 
proved by  able  engineers,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times. 

The  application  of  the  science  of  hydraulics  to  rivers  took 
its  rise  in  northern  Italy,  which  has  been  carried  to  such  per- 
fection in  some  points  that  China  is  the  only  country  which 
can  vie  with  it  in  the  practice  of  irrigation.  The  lock  on 
canals  was  in  use  in  Lombardy  as  early  as  the  13th  cen- 
tury, and  in  the  end  of  the  14th  it  was  applied  to  two  canals 
which  unite  the  Ticino  to  the  Adda,  by  that  great  artist  and 
philosopher,  Leonardo  da  Vinci :  about  the  same  time  he  in- 
troduced the  use  of  the  lock  into  France. 

Various  circumstances  combine  to  make  the  British  rivers 
more  useful  than  many  others  of  greater  magnitude.  The 
larger  streams  are  not  encumbered  with  rocks  or  rapids  ;  they 
all  run  into  branches  of  the  Atlantic  ;  the  tides  flow  up  their 
channels  to  a  considerable  distance  ;  and  above  all,  though 
short  in  their  course,  they  end  in  wide  gulfs,  capable  of  con- 
taining whole  navies — a  circumstance  that  gives  an  import- 
ance to  streams  otherwise  utterly  insignificant  when  com- 
pared either  with  the  great  rivers  of  the  old  or  new  continent. 

The  Thames,  whose  basin  is  only  5027  square  miles,  and 
whose  length  is  but  240  miles,  of  which  however  204  are 
navigable,  spreads  its  influence  over  the  remotest  parts  of  the 
earth  ;  its  depth  is  sufficient  to  admit  large  vessels  even  up 
to  London,  and  throughout  its  navigable  course  a  continued 
forest  of  masts  display  the  flags  of  every  nation  ;  its  banks, 
which  are  in  a  state  of  perfect  cultivation,  are  the  seat  of  the 
highest  civilization,  moral  and  political.  Local  circumstances 
havfe  undoubtedly  been  favourable  to  this  superior  develop- 
ment, but  the  earnest  and  energetic  temperament  of  the  Saxon 
race  has  rendered  the  advantages  of  their  position  available. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  other  rivers  in  the  British  islands, 
vying  in  commercial  activity  with  the  Thames.  There  are 
2789  miles  of  canal  in  Britain,  and,  including  rivers,  5430 
miles  of  inland  navigation,  which,  in  comparison  with  the  size 
}6* 


186  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

of  the  country,is  very  great;  it  is  even  said  that  no  part  of  Eng- 
land is  more  than  15  miles  distant  from  water  communication. 
On  the  whole,  Europe  is  fortunate  with  regard  to  its  water 
systems,  and  its  inhabitants  are  for  the  most  part  alive  to  the 
bounties  which  Providence  has  bestowed. 


AFRICAN  RIVERS. 

In  Africa  the  tropical  climate  and  the  extremes  of  aridity 
and  moisture  give  a  totally  different  character  to  its  rivers. 
The  most  southerly  part  is  comparatively  destitute  of  them, 
and  those  that  do  exist  are  of  inferior  size,  except  the  Orange 
River  or  Gareep,  which  has  a  long  course  on  the  table-land, 
but  is  nowhere  navigable.     There  is  a  region  of  numerous 
rivers   between  the    l8th  degree  of  south  latitude  and   the 
equator.     They  rise  in  tw^o  great  watersheds  on  the  table- 
land, from  one  of  which  they  go  to  the  Mozambique  Channel 
and  Indian  Ocean,  and  from  the  other  they  flow  to  the  At- 
lantic.   The  first  is  the  range  of  the  mountains  of  Nyassi,  and 
the  high  lands  that  surround  the  south  end  of  the  great  lake  of 
that  name,  350  miles  from  Mozambique.   From  thence  all  those 
streams  come  that  flow-  over  the  rich  plains  of  Mozambique 
and  Zanguebar.    Of  these  thcZambeze  isprobably  the  greatest, 
and  is  said  to  have  a  course  of  900  miles,  navigable  for  200  or 
300  from  its  mouth.   Many  other  rivers  are  navigable  along  this 
coast,  where  grain  ripens  all  the  year,  yielding  from  80  to 
150  fold,  and   every   eastern  production    might   be  raised. 
The  other  watershed  is  a  ridge  of  no  great  height,  that  runs 
from  S.E.  to  N.W.  on  the  table-land  west  of  the  dominions 
of  the  Zambeze.     In  it  the  numerous  rivers  originate  which, 
after  falling  in  cascades  and  rapids  through  the  chains  that 
border  the  table-land  on  the  west,  fertilize  the  luxuriant  ma- 
ritime plains  of  Benguela,  Congo,  Angola,  and  Loango.    The 
Zaire,  or  Congo,  by  much  the  largest  of  these,  is  navigable 
for  140  miles,  where  the  ascent  of  the  tide  is  stopped  by  cata- 
racts.    The  lower  course  of  this  river  is  five  or  six  miles 
broad,  full  of  islands,  and    160  fathoms  deep  at   its   mouth. 
Its  upper  course,  like  that  of  most  of  these  rivers,  is  unknown  ; 
the  greater  number  are  fordable  on  the  table-land,  but,  from 
the  abrupt  descent  of  the  high  country  to  the  maritime  plains, 
none  of  them  afiord  access  to  the  interior  of  south  Africa. 


AFRICAN    RIVERS.  187 

The  mountainous  edge  of  the  table-land,  with  its  terminal 
projections,  Senegambia  and  Abyssinia,  which  separate  the 
northern  from  the  southern  deserts,  is  the  principal  source  of 
running  water  in  Africa.  Various  rivers  have  their  origin 
in  these  mountainous  regions,  of  which  the  Nile  and  the  Niger 
yield  in  size  only  to  some  of  the  great  Asiatic  and  American  < 
rivers;  in  importance  and  historical  interest  the  Nile  is  in- 
ferior to  none. 

Two  large  rivers  unite  their  streams  to  form  the  Nile — the 
Bahr-el-Abiad  or  White  Nile  and  the  Bahr-el-Azrek  or  Blue 
Nile,  but  the  sources  and  course  of  the  White  Nile  are  yet 
unknown  :  it  is  said  to  rise  in  Donga,  in  the  Mountains  of 
the  Moon  ;  and  the  Blue  Nile  in  Abyssinia,  in  the  table-land 
of  Dembea,  in  the  mountains  that  separate  Tigre  from  Am- 
hara,  10,000  feet  above  the  sea.  These  two  rivers  converge 
during  a  long  and  often  turbulent  course,  and  unite  at  last 
in  the  plains  of  Senaar. 

The  Tecazze,  the  largest  affluent,  issues  from  the  moun- 
tains of  Lasta,  and  is  the  chief  river  in  the  kingdom  of  Tigre. 
Its  affluents  fall  in  cascades  from  100  to  150  feet  high,  and 
it  takes  its  name  of  Tecazze  or  "  The  Terrible"  from  the  im- 
petuosity with  which  it  rushes  through  the  chasms  and  over 
the  precipices  of  the  mountains.  It  joins  the  main  stream 
in  17°  35'  N.  lat.,  from  whence  down  to  the  Mediterranean, 
a  distance  of  1200  miles,  the  Nile  does  not  receive  a  single 
brook.  The  first  part  of  the  Nile's  course  is  interrupted  by 
cataracts,  from  the  geological  structure  of  the  Nubian  desert, 
which  consists  of  a  succession  of  broad  sterile  terraces,  se- 
parated by  ranges  of  rocks  running  east  and  west.  Over 
these  the  Nile  runs  in  nine  or  ten  cataracts,  the  last  of  which 
is  at  Syene,  where  it  enters  Egypt.  Most  of  them  are  only 
rapids,  where  each  successive  fall  of  water  is  not  a  foot  high. 
That  they  were  higher  at  a  former  period  has  recently  been 
ascertained  by  Dr.  Lepsius,  the  very  intelligent  traveller  sent 
by  the  King  of  Prussia  at  the  head  of  a  mission  to  explore 
that  country.  He  found  a  series  of  inscriptions  on  the  rocks 
in  Senaar,  marking  the  height  of  the  Nile  at  different  periods ; 
and  it  appears  from  these  that  in  that  country  the  bed  of  the 
river  had  been  30  feet  higher  than  it  is  now. 

Fifteen  miles  below  Cairo,  and  90   miles  from  the  sea 
the  Nile  is  divided  into  two  branches,  of  which,  one,  run- 
ning in  a  northerly  direction,  enters  the  Mediterranean  be- 


188  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

low  Rosetta  ;  the  other,  cutting  Lower  Egypt  into  two  nearly 
equal  parts,  enters  the  sea  above  Damietta  ;  so  that  the  delta 
between  these  two  places  has  a  sea-coast  of  150  miles. 

The  basin  of  the  Nile,  occupying  an  area  of  500,000  square 
miles,  has  an  uncommon  form  :  it  is  wide  in  Ethiopia  and 
Nubia  ;  but  for  the  greater  part  of  a  winding  course  of  2750 
miles  it  is  merely  a  verdant  line  of  the  softest  beauty,  sud- 
denly and  strongly  contrasted  with  the  dreary  waste  of  the 
Red  desert.  Extending  from  the  equatorial  far  into  the  tem- 
perate zone,  its  aspect  is  less  varied  than  might  have  been 
expected  on  account  of  the  parched  and  showerless  country 
it  passes  through.  Nevertheless,  from  the  great  elevation 
of  the  origin  of  the  river,  the  upper  part  has  a  perpetual 
spring,  though  within  a  few  degrees  of  the  equator.  At  the 
foot  of  the  table-land  of  Abyssinia  the  country  is  covered 
with  dense  tropical  jungles,  while  the  rest  of  the  valley  is 
rich  soil,  the  detritus  of  the  mountains  for  thousands  of  years. 

As  the  mean  velocity  of  the  Nile,  when  not  in  flood,  is 
about  two  miles  and  a  half  an  hour,  a  particle  of  water  would 
take  twenty-two  days  and  a  half  to  descend  from  the  junction 
of  the  Tecazze  to  the  sea  ;  hence  the  retardation  of  the  annual 
inundations  of  the  Nile  in  its  course  is  a  peculiarity  of  this 
river,  owing  to  some  unknown  cause  towards  its  origin  which 
affects  the  whole  stream.  In  Abyssinia  and  Senaar  the 
river  begins  to  swell  in  April,  yet  the  flood  is  not  sensible  at 
Cairo  till  towards  the  summer  solstice  ;  it  then  continues  to 
rise  about  a  hundred  days,  and  remains  at  its  greatest  height 
till  the  middle  of  October,  when  it  begins  to  subside,  and 
arrives  at  its  lowest  point  in  April  and  May.  The  height  of 
the  flood  in  Upper  Egypt  varies  from  30  to  35  feet ;  at  Cairo 
it  is  23,  and  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Delta  only  4  feet. 

Annubis,  or  Sirius,  the  Dog-star,  was  worshipped  by  the 
Egyptians,  from  its  supposed  influence  on  the  rising  of  the 
Nile.  According  to  Champolion,  their  calendar  commenced 
when  the  heliacal  rising  of  that  star  coincided  with  the  sum- 
mer solstice,  the  time  at  which  the  Nile  began  to  swell  at 
Cairo.  Now  this  coincidence  made  the  nearest  approach  to 
accuracy  3291  years  before  the  Christian  era  ;  and  as  the 
rising  of  the  river  still  takes  place  precisely  at  the  same  time 
and  in  the  same  manner,  it  follows  that  the  heat  and  periodical 
rains  in  Upper  Ethiopia  have  not  varied  for  5000  years.  In  the 
time  of  Hipparchus  the  summer  solstice  was  in  the  sign  of 


THE    NIGER. 


189 


Leo  ;  and  probably  about  that  period  the  flowing  of  the  foun- 
tains from  the  mouths  of  lions  of  basalt  and  granite  was 
adopted,  as  emblematical  of  the  pouring  forth  of  the  floods  of 
the  Nile.  The  emblem  is  still  common  in  Rome,  though  its 
origin  is  probably  forgotten  ;  and  the  signs  of  the  zodiac  have 
moved  backwards  more  than  30°. 

The  two  greatest  African  rivers,  the  Nile  and  the  Niger, 
are  dissimilar  in  almost  every  circumstance  ;  the  Nile,  dis- 
charging itself  for  ages  into  a  sea,  the  centre  of  commerce 
and  civilization,  has  been  renowned  by  the  earliest  historians, 
sacred  and  profane,  for  the  exuberant  fertility  of  its  banks 
and  for  the  learning  and  wisdom  of  their  inhabitants,  who 
have  left  magnificent  and  imperishable  monuments  of  their 
power  and  genius.  It  was  for  ages  the  seat  of  science,  and 
by  the  Red  Sea  it  had  intercourse  with  the  most  highly  cul- 
tivated nations  of  the  East  from  time  immemorial.  The 
Niger,  on  the  contrary,  though  its  rival  in  magnitude,  and 
running  through  a  country  glowing  with  all  the  brilliancy  of 
tropical  vegetation,  has  ever  been  inhabited  by  barbarous 
or  semi-barbarous  nations  ;  and  its  course  till  lately  was 
little  known,  as  its  source  still  is.  In  early  ages,  before  the 
pillars  of  Hercules  had  been  passed,  and  indeed  long  after- 
wards, the  Atlantic  coast  of  Africa  was  an  unknown  region  ; 
and  thus  the  flowing  of  the  Niger  into  that  lonely  ocean  kept 
the  natives  in  their  original  rude  state.  Such  are  the  effects 
of  local   circumstances  on  the   intellectual  advancement  of, 

man. 

The  sources  of  the  Niger,  Joliba,  or  Quorra,are  supposed 
to  be  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Kong  Mountains,  in  the 
country  of  Bambarra,  more  than  1600  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  From  thence  it  goes  north,  and,  after  passing 
through  Lake  Debo,  makes  a  wide  circuit  in  the  plains  of 
Soudan  to  Timbuctoo,  through  eight  or  nine  degrees  of  lati- 
tude ;  then  bending  round,  it  again  approaches  the  Kong 
Mountains,  at  the  distance  of  1000  miles  in  a  straight  line 
from  its  source  ;  and  having  threaded  them,  it  flows  across 
the  low  lands  into  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  a  course  of  2300 
miles.  In  the  plains  of  Soudan  it  receives  many  very  large 
affluents  from  the  high  land  of  Senegambia  on  the  west  ; 
and  the  Chadda  on  the  east— a  navigable  river  larger  than 
itself,  the  outlet  of  the  great  Lake  Chad,  which  drains  the 
lofty  Komri,  or  Mountains  of  the  Moon— falls  into  it  a  little 


190  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

below  Fandah  after  a  course  of  some  hundred  miles:  thus 
it  affords  an  uninterrupted  water  communication  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  heart  of  Africa.  Lonor  before  leaving  the 
plains  of  Soudan  the  Niger  becomes  a  noble  river,  with  a 
smooth  stream,  gliding  at  the  rate  of  from  five  to  eight  miles 
an  hour,  varying  in  breadth  from  one  to  eight  miles.  Its 
banks  are  studded  with  densely  populous  towns  and  villages, 
groves  of  palm-trees  and  cultivated  fields. 

This  great  river  divides  into  three  branches  near  the  head 
of  a  delta  which  is  equal  in  area  to  the  whole  of  Ireland, 
intersected  by  navigable  branches  of  the  principal  stream  in 
every  direction.  The  soil  is  rich  mould,  and  the  vegetation 
so  rank  that  the  trees  seem  to  grow  out  of  the  water.  The 
Nun,  which  is  the  principal  or  central  branch,  flows  into 
the  sea  near  Cape  Formosa,  and  is  that  which  the  brothers 
Lander  descended.  There  are,  however,  six  rivers  which 
run  into  the  Bight  of  Benin,  all  communicating  with  the 
Niger,  and  with  one  another.  The  Old  Calabar  is  the  most 
eastern  ;  it  rises  in  the  high  land  of  the  Calbongos,  and  is 
united  to  the  Niger  by  a  natural  canal.  The  Niger  throughout 
its  long  winding  course  lies  entirely  within  the  tropic  of 
Cancer,  and  is  consequently  subject  to  periodical  inunda- 
tions, which  reach  their  greatest  height  in  August,  about  40 
or  50  days  after  the  summer  solstice.  The  plains  of  Soudan 
are  then  covered  with  water  and  crowded  by  boats.  These 
fertile  regions  are  inaccessible  to  Europeans  from  the  per- 
nicious climate,  and  dangerous  from  the  savage  condition  of 
many  of  the  tribes. 

The  coast  of  Guinea  west  from  the  Niger  is  watered  by 
many  streams  of  no  great  magnitude  from  the  Kong-Moun- 
tains. The  table-land  of  Senegambia  is  the  origin  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  the  Gambia,  the  Senegal,  and  others  of  great 
size,  and  also  many  of  an  inferior  order  that  fertilize  the 
luxuriant  maritime  plains  on  the  Atlantic.  Their  navigable 
course  is  cut  short  by  a  semicircular  chain  of  mountains 
which  forms  the  western  boundary  of  the  high  land  through 
which  they  thread  their  way  in  rapids  and  cataracts.  The 
Gambia  rises  in  Foula  Toro,  and  after  a  course  of  about 
600  miles  enters  the  Atlantic  by  many  branches  connected 
by  natural  channels,  supposed  at  one  time  to  be  separate 
rivers.  The  Senegal,  the  largest  river  in  this  part  of  Africa, 
is  850  miles  long.     It  receives  many  tributaries  in  the  upper 


ASIATIC    RIVERS.  191 

part  of  its  course,  and  in  the  lower  is  full  of  islands.  It 
drains  two  lakes,  has  several  accessories,  and  is  united  to 
the  basin  of  the  Gambia  by  the  river  Neriho. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

ASIATIC     RIVERS EUPHRATES    AND     TIGRIS RIVER    SYSTEMS 

SOUTH     OF     THE      HIMALAYA CHINESE     RIVERS SIBERIAN 

RIVERS. 

The  only  river  system  of  importance  in  western  Asia  is  that 
of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  In  the  basin  of  these  cele- 
brated streams,  containing  an  area  of  230,000  square  miles, 
mounds  of  rubbish  on  a  desolate  plain  are  the  only  vestiges 
that  remain  of  the  great  cities  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon. 
Innumerable  ruins  and  inscriptions,  also  records  of  the  glory 
of  times  less  remote,  have  been  discovered  by  adventurous 
travellers,  and  bear  testimony  to  the  truth  of  some  of  the 
most  interesting  paj2;es  of  history.  The  Euphrates,  and  its 
affluent  the  Merad-Chai,  supposed  to  be  the  stream  forded 
as  the  Euphrates  by  the  10,000  Greeks  in  their  retreat,  rise 
in  the  heart  of  Armenia,  and,  after  running  1800  miles  on 
the  table-land  to  38°  41'  of  north  latitude,  they  join  the 
northern  branch  of  the  Euphrates,  which  rises  in  the  Gheul 
Mountains,  near  Erzeroum.  The  whole  river  then  descends 
in  rapids  through  the  Taurus  chain,  north  of  Rumkala,  to 
the  plains  of  Mesopotamia. 

The  Tigris  comes  from  Dearbeker,  more  to  the  east,  and, 
after  receiving  auxiliaries  from  the  high  lands  Kourdistan, 
it  piercesthe  Taurus  Mountains  at  Mosul,  and  descends  rapidly 
in  a  tortuous  course  to  the  same  plains,  where  it  is  joined 
by  many  streams  from  the  Lusistan  Mountains,  some  of 
which  are  navigable,  and  may  ultimately  be  of  great  com- 
mercial importance.  The  country  through  which  they  flow 
is  extremely  beautiful,  and  rich  in  corn,  date-groves,  and 
forest-trees.  Near  the  city  of  Bagdad,  the  two  rivers,  ap- 
proaching, surround  the  plain  of  Mesopotamia,  unite  at 
Koona,  and  run  150  miles  in  one  stream  to  the  Persian 
Gulf,  under  the  name  of  Chat-el- Arab.     The  banks  of  the 


192  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Tigris  and  Euphrates  are  quite  desolate,  alternately  vast 
swamps  or  burnt  up,  and  in  many  parts  covered  with  brush- 
wood or  grass.  The  remains  of  numerous  canals,  joining 
these  great  rivers  and  their  affluents,  show  the  former  magni- 
tude of  this  most  ancient  water  system.  The  floods  of  this 
river  are  very  regular  in  their  periods  ;  they  begin  in  March, 
and  attain  their  greatest  height  in  June. 

The  Persian  Gulf  may  be  navigated  by  steam  all  the  year, 
the  Euphrates  only  eight  months  ;  it  might  however  aflford 
easy  intercourse  with  eastern  Asia,  as  it  did  in  former  times. 
The  distance  from  Aleppo  to  Bombay  by  the  Euphrates  is 
2870  miles,  of  which  2700,  from  Bir,  to  Bombay,  are  by 
water  ;  in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth  this  was  the  com- 
mon route  to  India,  and  a  fleet  was  then  kept  at  Bir  ex- 
pressly for  that  navigation. 

Five  systems  of  rivers  of  the  first  magnitude  descend 
from  the  central  table-land  of  eastern  Asia  and  its  mountain 
barriers,  all  different  in  origin,  direction,  and  character, 
while  they  convey  to  the  ocean  a  greater  volume  of  water 
than  all  the  rivers  of  the  rest  of  the  continent  conjointly. 
Of  these,  the  Indus,  the  double  system  of  the  Ganges  and 
Brahmapootra,  and  the  group  of  parallel  rivers  in  th€  Indo- 
Chinese  peninsula,  w^ater  the  plains  of  southern  Asia  ;  the 
great  system  of  rivers  that  descend  from  the  eastern  terraces 
of  the  table-land  irrigate  the  fertile  lands  of  China  ;  and 
lastly,  the  Siberian  rivers,  not  inferior  to  any  in  magnitude, 
carry  the  waters  of  the  Altai  to  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The  hard-fought  battles  and  splendid  victories  recently 
gained  by  British  valour  over  a  bold  and  well-disciplined 
foe  have  added  to  the  historical  interest  of  the  Indus  and 
its  tributary  streams,  now  the  boundaries  of  our  Asiatic 
territories. 

The  sources  of  the  Indus  and  Sutlej  were  only  ascertained 
in  1812  :  the  Ladak,  the  largest  branch  of  the  Indus,  has  its 
origin  in  the  snowy  mountains  of  Karakorum ;  and  the 
Shyook,  which  is  the  smaller  stream,  rises  in  the  Kentese  or 
Kangri  range,  a  branch  of  the  Himalaya,  which  extends 
along  the  table-land  of  Tibet,  west  of  the  sacred  lake  of 
Manasarora.  These  two  streams  join  north-west  of  Ladak, 
and  form  the  Indus  ;  the  Sutlej,  its  principal  tributary,  springs 
from  the  sacred  lake  itself.  Both  are  fed  by  streams  of  melted 
snow^  from  the  northern  side  of  the  Himalaya,  and  both  flow 


THE    INDUS. 


193 


westward  along  the  extensive  longitudinal  valleys  of  Tibet. 
The  Sutlej  breaks  through  the  Himalaya  about  the  75th 
meridian,  and  traverses  the  whole  breadth  of  the  chain  in 
frightful  chasms  and  clefts  in  the  rocks  to  the  plains  of  the 
Punjab  ;  the  Indus,  after  continuing  its  course  on  the  table- 
land through  several  degrees  of  longitude  farther,  descends 
by  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  west  of  the  valley  of  Cashmere,  to 
the  same  plain.  Three  tributaries,  the  Jelum  or  Hydaspes, 
the  Hydraotes,  and  the  Chenab,  all  superior  to  the  Rhone  in 
size,  flow  from  the  southern  face  of  the  Himalaya,  and  with 
the  Sutlej  join  the  Indus  before  it  reaches  Mittum  ;  hence 
the  name  Punjab,  "  the  plain  of  the  five  rivers,"  now  one 
of  our  valuable  possessions  in  the  East.  From  Mittum  to 
the  ocean,  the  Indus,  like  the  Nile,  does  not  receive  a  single 
accessory,  from  the  same  cause — the  sterility  of  the  country 
through  which  it  passes.  The  Cabul  river,  which  rises  near 
Guzni,  but  is  joined  by  a  larger  affluent  from  the  lofty  plain 
of  Pamere,  flows  along  the  edge  of  the  Persian  table-land, 
through  picturesque  and  dangerous  defiles,  and  forms  the 
limit  between  eastern  and  western  Asia.  It  then  joins  the 
Indus  at  the  town  of  Attock,  and  is  the  only  tributary  of  any 
magnitude  that  comes  from  the  west. 

The  Indus  is  not  favourable  to  navigation:  for  70  miles 
after  it  leaves  the  mountains  the  descent  in  a  boat  is  dan- 
gerous, and  it  is  nowhere  navigable  for  steam-vessels  of 
more  than  30  inches  draught  of  water  ;  yet,  from  the  fertility 
of  the  Punjab,  and  the  near  approach  of  its  basin  to  that  of 
the  Ganges  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  it  must  ultimately 
be  a  valuable  acquisition,  and  the  more  especially  because 
it  commands  the  principal  roads  between  Persia  and  India, 
one  through  Cabul  and  Peshawer  to  Attock,  and  the  other 
from  Herat  through  Candahar  to  the  same  place.  The  delta 
of  the  Indus,  formerly  celebrated  for  its  civ^ilization,  has 
long  been  a  desert  ;  but  from  the  vitality  of  the  soil,  and  the 
change  of  political  circumstances,  it  may  again  resume  its 
pristine  aspect.  It  is  60  miles  long,  and  presents  a  face  of 
120  miles  to  the  sea  at  the  Gulf  of  Oman,  where  the  river 
empties  itself  by  many  mouths,  of  which  only  three  or  four 
are  navigable  :  one  only  can  be  entered  by  vessels  of  50 
tons,  and  all  are  liable  to  change.  The  tide  ascends  them 
with  extraordinary  rapidity  for  75  miles,  and  so  great  is  the 
quantity  of  mud  carried  by  it  and  the  absorbing  violence  of 
17 


194  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  eddies,  that  a  vessel  wrecked  on  the  coast  was  buried 
in  sand  and  mud  in  two  tides.  The  annual  floods  begin 
with  the  melting  of  the  snow  in  the  Himalaya  in  the  end  of 
April,  come  to  their  height  in  July,  and  end  in  September. 
The  length  of  this  river  is  1500  miles,  and  it  drains  an  area 
of  400,000  square  miles. 

The  second  group  of  south  Indian  rivers,  and  one  of  the 
greatest,  is  the  double  system  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahma- 
pootra. These  two  rivers,  though  wide  apart  at  their  sources, 
converse  to  a  common  delta,  and  constitute  one  of  the  most 
important  groups  on  the  globe. 

Mr.  Alexander  Elliot,  of  the  Body  Guard  in  Bengal,  son 
of  Admiral  Elliot,  with  his  friends,  are  the  first  who  have 
accomplished  the  arduous  expedition  to  the  sources  of  the 
Ganges.  The  river  flows  at  once  in  a  very  rapid  stream 
not  less  than  40  yards  across,  from  a  huge  cave  in  a  perpen- 
dicular wall  of  ice  at  the  distance  of  about  three  marches 
from  the  temple  of  Gungootree,  to  which  the  pilgrims  resort. 
Mr.  Elliot  says,  "  The  view  from  the  glacier  was  perfectly 
amazing  ;  beautiful  or  magnificent  is  no  word  for  it — it  was 
really  quite  astonishing.  If  you  can  fancy  a  bird's-eye  view 
of  all  the  mountains  in  the  world  in  one  cluster,  and  every 
one  of  them  covered  with  snow,  it  would  hardly  give  you 
an  idea  of  the  sight  which  presented  itself." 

Many  streams  from  the  southern  face  of  the  Himalaya 
unite  at  Hurdwar  to  form  the  great  body  of  the  river.  It 
flow^  from  thence  in  a  south-easterly  direction  through  the 
plains  of  Bengal,  receiving  in  its  course  the  tribute  of  19  or 
20  rivers,  of  which  12  are  larger  than  the  Rhine.  About 
220  miles  in  a  direct  line  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  into 
which  the  Ganges  flows,  the  innumerable  channels  and 
branches  into  which  it  splits  form  an  intricate  maze  over  a 
delta  twice  as  large  as  that  of  the  Nile. 

The  sources  of  the  Brahmapootra,  a  river  equal  in  volume 
to  the  Ganges,  though  not  in  length,  are  some  hundreds  of 
miles  distant  from  those  of  the  latter.  They  lie  to  the  north 
of  the  Birman  empire,  but  whether  they  spring  from  the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  Himalaya  or  from  some  snow-clad 
branch  of  it  is  unknown.  The  upper  course  of  the  river 
among  the  lofty  defiles  of  the  mountains  is  completely  zigzag, 
but  soon  after  passing  through  the  sacred  pool  of  Brahma- 
Koond  it  enters  the  plains  of  Upper  Assam,  and  receives 


THE  GANGES  AND  BRAHMAPOOTRA.  195 

the  name  of  Brahmapootra — *' the  offspring  of  Brahma; 
the  natives  call  it  the  Lahit,  Sanscrit  for  "red  river." 
In  Upper  Assam,  through  which  it  winds  500  miles  and 
forms  some  very  extensive  channel  islands,  it  receives  six 
very  considerable  accessories,  of  which  the  origin  is  un- 
known, though  some  are  supposed  to  come  from  the  table- 
land of  Tibet.  They  are  only  navigable  in  the  plains,  but 
vessels  of  considerable  burthen  ascend  the  parent  stream  as 
high  as  Sampura.  Before  it  enters  the  plains  of  Bengal, 
below  Goyalpara,  the  Brahmapootra  runs  with  rapidity  in 
great  volume,  and,  after  receiving  the  river  of  Bhotan  and 
other  streams,  its  branches  unite  with  those  of  the  Ganges 
about  40  miles  from  the  coast,  but  the  two  rivers  enter  the 
sea  by  different  mouths,  though  they  sometimes  approach 
within  two  miles.  The  length  of  the  Brahmapootra  is  pro- 
bably 860  miles,  so  that  it  is  500  miles  shorter  than  the 
Ganges:  the  volume  of  water  discharged  by  it  during  the 
dry  season  is  about  146,888  cubic  feet  in  a  second  ;  the 
quantity  discharged  by  the  Ganges  in  the  same  time  and 
under  the  same  circumstances  is  only  80,000  cubic  feet. 
In  the  perennial  floods  the  quantity  of  water  poured  through 
the  tributaries  of  the  Brahmapootra  from  their  snowy  sources 
is  incredible  ;  the  plains  of  Upper  Assam  are  an  entire  sheet 
of  water  from  the  15th  of  June  to  the  15th  of  September, 
and  there  is  no  communication  but  by  elevated  causeways 
eioht  or  ten  feet  hich  :  the  two  rivers  with  their  branches 
lay  the  plain  of  Bengal  under  water  for  hundreds  of  miles 
annually.  They  begin  first  to  swell  from  the  melting  of  the 
snow  on  the  mountains  ;  but  before  their  inferior  streams 
overflow  from  that  cause,  all  the  lower  parts  of  Bengal  adja- 
cent to  the  Ganges  and  Brahmapootra  are  under  water,  from 
the  swelling  of  these  rivers  by  the  rains.  The  increase  is 
arrested  before  the  middle  of  August  by  the  cessation  of  the 
rains  in  the  mountains,  though  they  continue  to  fall  longer 
in  the  plains.  The  delta  is  traversed  in  every  direction  by 
arms  of  the  rivers.  The  Hoogly  branch,  at  all  times  navi- 
gable, passes  Calcutta  and  Chandernagor  ;  and  the  Haurin- 
gotta  arm  is  also  navigable,  as  well  as  the  Ganges  properly 
so  called.  The  channels,  however,  are  perpetually  changing 
from  the  strength  of  the  current  and  the  prodigious  quantity 
of  matter  washed  from  the  high  lands;  the  Ganges  alone 
carries  to  the  sea  600,000  cubic  feet  of  mud  in  a  second,  the 


196  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

effects  of  which  are  perceptible  60  miles  from  the  coast. 
The  elevation  of  the  mountains,  and  indeed  of  the  land  gene- 
rally, must  have  been  enormous,  since  it  remains  still  so 
stupendous  after  ages  of  such  degradation.  The  Sunder- 
bands,  a  congeries  of  innumerable  river  islands  formed  by 
the  endless  streams  and  narrow  channels  of  the  rivers,  as 
well  as  by  the  indentations  of  arms  of  the  sea,  line  the  coast 
of  Bengal  for  180  miles — a  w^ilderness  of  jungle  and  heavy 
timber.  The  united  streams  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmapootra 
drain  an  area  of  650,000  square  miles,  but  there  is  scarcely 
a  spot  in  Bengal  more  than  20  miles  distant  from  a  river 
navigable  even  in  the  dry  season. 

These  three  great  rivers  of  southern  India  do  not  differ 
more  widely  in  their  physical  circumstances  than  in  the 
races  of  men  who  inhabit  their  banks,  yet  from  their  posi- 
tion they  seem  formed  to  unite  nations  the  most  varied  in 
their  aspect  and  speech.  The  tributaries  of  the  Ganges  and 
Indus  come  so  near  to  each  other  at  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tains, that  a  canal  only  two  miles  long  would  unite  them, 
and  thus  an  inland  navigation  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  to  the 
Gulf  of  Oman  might  be  established. 

An  immense  volume  of  water  is  poured  in  a  series  of 
nearly  parallel  rivers  of  great  magnitude  and  strength 
through  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula  into  the  ocean  opposite 
the  Sunda  Archipelago.  They  rise  in  those  elevated  regions 
at  the  south-eastern  angle  of  the  table-land  of  Tibet,  the 
lofty  but  unknown  provinces  of  the  Chinese  empire,  and 
water  the  great  valleys  that  extend  nearly  from  north  to 
south  with  perfect  uniformity,  between  chains  of  mountains 
no  less  uniform,  which  spread  out  like  a  fan  as  they  approach 
the  sea.  Scarcely  any  thing  is  known  of  the  origin  or  upper 
parts  of  these  rivers,  and  with  a  few  exceptions  almost  as 
little  of  the  lower. 

Their  number  amounts  to  six  or  seven,  all  large,  though 
three  surpass  the  rest— the  Irriwaddy,  which  waters  the 
Birman  empire,  and  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  at  the 
Gulf  of  Martaban;  the  Meinam  or  river  of  Siam  ;  and  the 
river  of  Cambodja,  which  flows  through  the  empire  of 
Annam  :  the  two  last  go  into  the  China  Sea. 

The  sources  of  the  Irriwaddy  are  in  the  same  chain  of 
mountains  with  those  of  the  Brahmapootra,  more  to  the 
south.     Its  course   is  through   countries  hardly  known   to 


INDO-CHINESE    RIVERS.  '  197 

Europeans,  but  it  seems  to  be  navigable  by  boats  coming  to 
the  city  of  Amarapoora,  south  of  which  it  enters  the  finest 
and  richest  plain  of  the  empire,  containing  its  four  capital 
cities.  There  it  receives  two  large  affluents,  one  from  the 
Chinese  province  of  Yunnah,  which  flows  into  the  Irriwaddy 
at  the  city  of  Ava,  446  miles  from  the  sea,  the  highest  point 
attained  by  the  British  force  during  the  Birmese  war. 

From  Ava  to  its  delta  the  Irriwaddy  is  a  magnificent 
river,  more  than  four  miles  broad  in  some  places,  but  en- 
cumbered with  channel  islands.  In  this  part  of  its  course 
it  receives  its  largest  tributary,  and  forms  in  its  delta  one  of 
the  most  extensive  systems  of  internal  navigation.  The 
Rangoon  is  the  only  one  of  its  14  mouths  that  is  always 
navigable,  and  in  it  the  commerce  of  the  empire  is  concen- 
trated. The  internal  communication  is  extended  by  the 
junction  of  the  two  most  navigable  deltoid  branches  with 
the  rivers  Salven  and  Pegu,  by  natural  canals:  that  joining 
the  former  is  200  miles  long  ;  the  canal  uniting  the  latter  is 
only  serviceable  at  high  water. 

The  Meinam,  one  of  the  largest  Asiatic  rivers,  is  less 
known  than  the  Irriwaddy  :  it  comes  from  the  Chinese  pro- 
vince of  Yunnan  and  runs  through  the  kingdom  of  Siam, 
w^hich  it  cuts  into  several  islands  by  many  diverging  branches, 
and  enters  the  Gulf  of  Siam  by  three  principal  arms,  the 
most  easterly  of  which  forms  the  harbour  of  Bangkok.  It 
is  joined  to  the  Meinam  Kong  or  Cambodja  by  the  small  river 
Anan-Myit. 

The  river  of  Cambodja  has  the  longest  course  of  any  in 
the  peninsula  ;  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  Lang-thsang,  which 
rises  in  the  high  land  of  K'ham,  in  eastern  Asia,  not  far  from 
the  sources  of  the  great  Chinese  river,  the  Yang-tsi-kiang. 
After  traversing  the  elevated  plain  of  Yunnan,  where  it  is 
navigable,  it  rushes  through  the  mountain  barriers  ;  and  on 
reaching  a  wider  valley,  about  300  miles  from  its  mouth,  it 
is  joined  to  the  Meinam  by  the  natural  canal  of  the  Anan- 
Myit.  More  to  the  south  it  is  said  to  split  into  branches 
which  unite  again. 

The  ancient  capital  of  Annan  is  situated  on  the  Cambodja, 
about  150  miles  from  the  sea:  a  little  to  the  south  its  ex- 
tensive delta  begins,  projects  far  into  the  ocean,  and  is  cut 
in  all  directions  by  arms  of  the  river  navigable  during  the 
floods  ;  three  of  its  mouths  are  permanently  so  for  large 
17* 


198  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

vessels  up  to  the  capital.  The  Sai-gon,  more  to  the  east,  is 
much  shorter  than  the  river  of  Cambodja,  though  said  to  be 
1000  miles  long  ;  but  Europeans  have  not  ascended  higher 
than  the  town  of  Sai-gon.  Near  its  mouth  it  sends  oflT 
several  branches  to  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Cambodja.  All 
rivers  of  this  part  of  Asia  are  subject  to  periodical  inunda- 
tions, which  fertilize  the  plains  at  the  expense  of  the  moun- 
tains. 

The  parallelism  of  the  mountain-chains  constitutes  for- 
midable barriers  between  the  upper  basins  of  the  Indo-Chi- 
nese rivers,  and  decided  lines  of  separation  between  the 
inhabitants  of  the  intervening  valleys  ;  but  this  inconve- 
nience is  in  some  degree  compensated  by  the  natural  canals 
of  junction  and  the  extensive  water  communication  towards 
the  mouths  of  the  rivers. 

**  The  Sons  of  the  Ocean,"  a  double  system  of  collossal 
rivers  which  drain  1,400,000  square  miles  of  the  Chinese 
empire,  rise  in  the  two  extensive  and  principal  terraces  on 
the  eastern  slope  of  the  table-land  of  central  Asia.  The 
length  of  the  Hoang-Ho  is  2000  miles,  that  of  the  Yang-tsi- 
kang  2900.  Though  near  at  their  beginning,  they  are 
widely  separated  north  and  south,  as  they  proceed  on  their 
eastern  course,  by  the  mountain-chains  that  border  the  table- 
land ;  but  they  again  approach,  and  are  not  more  than  100 
miles  apart  when  they  enter  the  Whang-Hai  or  Yellow  Sea. 
They  are  united  in  central  China  by  innumerable  canals, 
and  form  the  grandest  and  most  extensive  water  system  in 
existence. 

The  Hoang-Ho  brings  down  in  one  hour  2,000,000  cubic 
feet  of  earth,  whence,  like  the  Tiber  of  old,  it  is  called  the 
*'  Yellow"  River. 

Strong  tides  from  the  Pacific  go  up  these  rivers  400  miles, 
and  for  the  time  prevent  the  descent  of  the  fresh  water, 
which  forms  large  interior  seas  frequented  by  thousands  of 
trading-vessels,  and  they  irrigate  the  productive  lands  of 
central  China,  from  time  immemorial  the  most  highly  culti- 
vated and  the  most  densely  peopled  region  of  the  globe. 

Almost  all  the  Chinese  rivers  of  less  note — and  they  are 
numerous — feed  these  giant  streams,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Ta-si-kiang,  and  the  Pei-ho,  or  White  River,  which 
have  their  own  basins.  The  former,  rising  to  the  east  of 
the  town  of  Yunnan,  flows  through   the   plains  of  Canton 


SIBERIAN    RIVERS.  199 

eastward   to   the  Gulf  of  Canton,  into  which  it  discharges 
itself,  increased  in  its  course  by  the  Sekiang. 

The  White  River,  rising  in  the  mountains  near  the  great 
wall,  becomes  navigable  a  few  miles  east  of  Pekin,  unites 
with  the  Eu-ho,  joins  the  great  canal,  and,  as  the  tide 
ascends  it  for  80  miles,  it  is  crowded  with  shipping. 

Four  great  rivers,  the  Amur,  the  Lena,  the  Yenessee,  and 
the  double  system  of  the  Irtish  and  Oby,  not  inferior  in  size 
to  any  rivers  in  Asia,  carry  off  the  waters  that  come  from 
the  Altai  chain,  and  from  the  mountains  and  terraces  on  the 
northern  declivity  of  the  centra!  table-land.  Two  of  these, 
the  Amur  and  Lena,  rise  in  the  Baikalian  mountains,  the 
source  of  more  great  rivers  than  any  group  of  its  size.  The 
Amur,  the  sources  of  which  are  partly  in  the  Russian  domin- 
ions, though  its  course  is  chiefly  in  China,  is  2000  miles 
long,  including  its  windings,  and  has  a  basin  of  853,000 
square  miles.  Almost  ail  its  accessories  come  from  that 
part  of  the  Baikalian  group  called  the  Yablonnoi  Khrebit  by 
the  Russians,  and  Khing-Khan-Oola  by  the  Chinese.  The 
river  Onon,  which  is  the  parent  stream,  has  its  origin  in  the 
Khentai  Khan,  a  branch  of  the  latter  ;  and  though  its  course 
is  through  an  uninhabited  country,  it  is  celebrated  as  being 
the  birthplace  and  the  scene  of  the  exploits  of  Tshingis 
Khan.  After  passing  through  the  lake  of  Dalai-nor,  which 
is  210  miles  in  circumference,  it  takes  the  name  of  Argun, 
and  forms  the  boundary  between  the  Chinese  and  Russians 
for  400  miles  :  it  is  then  joined  by  the  Silka,  where  it 
assumes  the  Tunguse  name  of  the  Amur,  or  Great  River  ; 
the  Mandchoos  call  it  the  Saghalia,  or  Black  Water.  It 
receives  most  of  the  unknown  rivers  that  come  from  the 
mountain-slopes  of  the  Great  Gobi,  and  falls  into  the  Pacific 
opposite  to  the  island  of  Tarakai,  after  having  traversed 
three  degrees  of  latitude  and  thirty-three  of  longitude. 

The  Lena,  whose  basin  occupies  800,000  square  miles, 
springs  from  mountains  20  miles  west  from  the  Lake  of 
Baikal,  and  runs  north-east  through  more  than  half  its  course 
to  the  Siberian  town  of  Yakutzk,  the  coldest  town  on  the 
face  of  the  earth,  receiving  in  its  course  the  Witim  and  the 
Alekraa,  its  two  principal  affluents  ;  the  former  from  the 
Baikal  Mountains,  the  latter  from  Stannovoi  Khrebit,  the 
most  southerly  part  of  the  Aldan  range.  North  of  Yakutzk, 
about  the  63d   parallel  of  latitude,  the  Lena  receives  the 


200  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Aldan,  its  greatest  tributary,  which  also  comes  from  the 
Stannovoi  Khrebit :  it  then  goes  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  be- 
tween banks  of  frozen  mud,  prodigious  masses  of  which  are 
hurled  down  by  the  summer  floods,  and  bring  to  view  the 
bones  of  those  huge  animals  of  extinct  species  which  at 
some  remote  period  had  found  their  nourishment  in  these 
desert  plains.  The  length  of  the  Lena  including  its  wind- 
ings is  1900  miles. 

A  difference  in  the  pressure  of  the  air  has  been  observed 
on  the  banks  of  this  river,  on  the  shores  of  the  sea  of  Ok- 
hotsk, and  at  Kamtschatka,  which  shows  that  in  the  dis- 
tance of  five  degrees  of  latitude  there  is  an  apparent  differ- 
ence in  the  level  of  the  sea  amounting  to  159  feet.*  A 
similar  phenomenon  was  observed  by  Captain  Foster  near 
Cape  Horn,  and  by  Sir  James  Ross  throughout  the  South 
Polar  Ocean. 

The  Yenessei,  a  much  larger  river  than  the  Lena,  drains 
about  1,000,000  square  miles,  and  is  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  Great  and  Little  Kem.  The  former  rises  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Sayansk  range  with  the  Baikalian  mountains  to 
the  north-west  of  Lake  Kassagol  ;  the  latter  comes  from  the 
Egtag  or  Little  Altai,  in  quite  an  opposite  direction  ;  so  that 
these  two  meet  at  nearly  right  angles,  and  take  the  name  of 
Yenessei  :  it  then  crosses  the  Sayansk  range  in  cataracts  and 
rapids,  entering  the  plains  of  Siberia  below  the  town  of 
Krasnagarsk.  Many  rivers  join  it  in  this  part  of  its  course, 
chiefly  the  Angora  from  the  Lake  Baikal  ;  but  its  greatest 
tributaries,  the  Upper  and  Lower  Tungurka,  both  large 
rivers  from  the  Baikalian  mountains,  join  it  lower  down,  the 
first  to  the  south,  the  latter  to  the  north  of  the  town  of  Yeni- 
seisk, whence  it  runs  north  to  the  Icy  Ocean,  there  forming 
a  large  gulf,  its  length  measured  along  its  bed  being  2500 
miles. 

The  Oby  rises  in  the  Lake  of  Toleskoi,  "  The  Lake  of 
Gold,"  in  Great  Tartary  ;  all  the  streams  of  the  Lesser  Altai 
unite  to  swell  it  and  its  great  tributary  the  Irtish.  The 
rivers  which  come  from  the  northern  declivity  of  the  moun- 
tains go  to  the  Oby,  those  from  the  western  sides  to  the 
Irtish,  which  springs  from  numerous  streams  on  the  south- 
western declivity  of  the  Little  Altai,  and  runs  westward  into 

•  M.  Erman. 


SIBERIAN    RIVERS.  201 

Lake  Zainzan,  200  miles  in  circumference.  Issuing  from 
thence  it  takes  a  westerly  course  to  the  plain  on  the  north  of 
Semissalatinsk.  In  the  plain  it  is  joined  by  the  Tobol, 
which  crosses  the  steppe  of  the  Kirghiz  Cossacks  from  the 
Ural  Mountains,  and  soon  unites  with  the  Oby  :  the  joint 
stream  then  proceeds  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  67°  N.  latitude. 
The  Oby  is  2000  miles  long,  and  the  basin  of  these  two 
rivers  occupy  a  third  part  of  Siberia. 

Before  the  Oby  leaves  the  mountains,  at  a  distance  of 
1200  miles  from  the  Arctic  Ocean,  its  surface  has  an  abso- 
lute elevation  of  not  more  than  400  feet,  and  the  Irtish,  at 
the  same  distance,  is  only  72  feet  higher,  both  are  conse- 
quently sluggish.  When  the  snow  melts  they  cover  the 
country  like  seas  ;  and  as  the  inclination  of  the  plains,  in 
the  middle  and  lower  parts  of  their  course,  is  not  sufficient 
to  carry  off  the  water,  those  immense  lakes  and  marshes  are 
formed  which  characterize  this  portion  of  Siberia. 

The  bed  of  Oby  is  very  deep  ;  and  there  are  no  soundings 
at  its  mouth  :  hence  the  largest  vessels  might  ascend  at 
least  to  its  junction  with  the  Iriish.  Its  many  affluents  also 
might  admit  ships,  did  not  the  climate  oppose  an  insurmount- 
able obstacle  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  Indeed,  all  Sibe- 
rian rivers  are  frozen  annually  for  many  months,  and  even 
the  ocean  along  the  Arctic  coasts  is  rarely  disencumbered 
from  ice  ;  consequently  these  vast  rivers  never  can  be  im- 
portant as  navigable  streams  ;  but  towards  the  mountains 
they  afford  water  communication  from  the  steppe  of  Issim  to 
the  Pacific.  They  abound  in  fish  and  waterfowl,  for  which 
the  Siberian  braves  the  extremest  severity  of  the  climate. 

Local  circumstances  have  nowhere  produced  a  greater  dif- 
ference in  the  human  race  than  in  the  basins  of  the  great 
rivers  north  and  south  of  the  table-land  of  eastern  Asia.  The 
Indian,  favoured  by  the  finest  climate,  and  a  soil  which  pro- 
duces the  luxuries  of  life,  intersected  with  rivers  navigable 
at  all  seasons,  and  affording  easy  communication  with  the 
surrounding  nations,  attained  early  a  high  degree  of  civiliza- 
tion ;  while  the  Siberian  and  Samoide,  doomed  to  contend 
with  the  rigours  of  the  polar  blasts  in  order  to  maintain  mere 
existence,  have  never  risen  beyond  the  lowest  grade  of  hu- 
manity: but  custom  softens  even  the  rigour  of  this  stern  life, 
so  that  here  also  a  share  of  happiness  is  enjoyed. 


202  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

RIVER  SYSTEMS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA RIVERS  OF  CENTRAL  AME- 
RICA  RIVERS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA,  AND  OF  AUSTRALIA. 

North  America  is  divided  into  four  distinct  water  systems 
by  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Alleghanies,  and  a  table-land 
which  contains  the  great  lakes,  and  separates  the  rivers  that 
flow  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  from  those  that  go  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  This  table-land  is  a  level,  nowhere  more  than  1200 
or  1500  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  is  itself  drained 
by  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  rivers  that  flow  into  Hudson's 
Bay.  The  St.  Lawrence  rises  in  Lake  Superior,  and,  after 
joining  the  five  great  lakes,  runs  north-east  into  the  Atlantic, 
and  ends  in  a  wide  estuary.  It  has  a  basin  of  537,000  square 
miles,  of  which  149,000  are  covered  with  water,  exclusive 
of  the  many  lesser  lakes  with  which  it  is  in  communication. 

North  of  the  watershed  there  is  an  endless  and  intricate 
labyrinth  of  lakes  and  rivers,  almost  all  connected  with  one 
another.  But  the  principal  streams  of  these  arctic  lands  are 
the  Great  Fish  River,  which  flows  north-east  in  a  continued 
series  of  dangerous  and  ail-but  impassable  rapids  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean  at  Melville  Strait.  The  Copper-mine  River,  of  much 
the  same  character,  after  traversing  many  lakes,  enters  the 
Icy  Sea  at  George  IV. 's  Gulf;  and  the  M'Kenzie,  a  stream 
of  greater  magnitude,  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Peace 
River  and  the  Athabasca  from  the  Rocky  Mountains,  after 
flowing  north  over  16  degrees  of  latitude,  enters  the  frozen 
ocean  in  the  Esquimaux  country  somewhere  beyond  the  arctic 
circle.  All  these  rivers  are  frozen  more  than  half  the  year, 
and  the  M'Kenzie,  in  consequence  of  its  length  and  direction 
from  south  to  north,  is  subject  to  floods  like  the  Siberian 
rivers,  because  its  lower  course  remains  frozen  for  several 
hundred  miles,  long  after  the  upper  part  is  thawed,  and  the 
water,  finding  no  outlet,  flows  over  the  ice  and  inundates 
the  plains. 

South  of  the  table-land  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  ex- 
tends for  1000  miles,  and   the  greatest  of  North  American 


RIVERS    OF    NORTH    AMERICA.  203 

rivers  has  its  origin  in  the  junction  of  streams  from  the  small 
lakes  Itaska  and  Ussawa,  on  the  table-land,  at  no  greater 
height  than  1500  feet  above  the  sea.  Before  their  junction 
these  streams  frequently  spread  out  into  sheets  of  water,  and 
the  Mississippi  does  the  same  in  the  upper  part  of  its  course. 
This  river  flows  from  north  to  south  through  more  degrees  of 
latitude  than  any  other,  and  receives  so  many  tributaries  of 
the  higher  orders,  that  it  would  be  difficult  even  to  name 
them.  Among  those  that  swell  its  volume  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  the  Missouri,  the  Arkansas,  and  the  Red  River 
are  the  largest,  each  being  in  itself  a  mighty  stream,  receiv- 
ing tributaries  without  number.  Before  their  junction  the 
Missouri  is  a  much  superior  stream,  both  in  length  and  vo- 
lume, to  the  Mississippi,  and  has  various  affluents  larger  than 
the  Rhine.  It  rises  in  about  44°  N.  lat.,  and  runs  partly  in 
a  longitudinal  valley  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  partly  at 
their  foot,  and  drains  the  whole  of  the  country  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Mississippi,  between  the  49th  and  40th  parallels 
of  north  latitude.  It  falls  in  cataracts  through  the  mountain 
regions,  but  in  the  plains  it  sometimes  passes  through  dense 
forests  and  sometimes  through  large  prairies,  in  all  accom- 
plishing 3000  miles  in  a  very  tortuous  and  generally  south- 
eastern direction,  till  it  is  confluent  with  the  Mississippi  near 
the  town  of  St.  Louis.  Lower  down  the  Mississippi  is  joined 
first  by  the  Arkansas,  2000  miles  long,  with  many  accesso- 
ries, and  then  by  the  Red  River,  the  former  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  but  the  latter,  which  rises  in  the  table-land  of 
New  Mexico,  is  fed  by  streams  from  the  Sierra  dal  Sacra- 
mento, and  enters  the  main  stream  not  far  from  the  beginning 
of  the  delta  which  stretches  in  a  long  tongue  of  land  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  tributaries  from  the  Rocky  Mountains,  though  much 
longer,  run  through  countries  of  less  promise  than  those  which 
are  traversed  by  the  Ohio  and  the  other  rivers  that  flow  into 
the  Mississippi  on  the  east,  which  oflfer  advantages  unrivalled 
even  in  this  wonderful  country,  only  beginning  to  be  deve- 
loped. The  Ohio  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  rivers  Alle- 
ghany and  Monongahela,  the  latter  from  the  Laurel  ridge  of 
the  Alleghany  chain  in  Virginia,  the  former  comes  from 
sources  near  Lake  Erie,  and  the  two  unite  at  Pittsburg,  from 
whence  the  river  winds  for  948  miles  through  some  of  the 
finest  States  of  the  Union,  till  its  junction  with  the  Missis- 


204  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

sippi,  having  received  many  accessories,  six  of  which  are 
navigable  streams.  There  are  some  obstacles  to  navigation 
in  the  Ohio,  but  they  have  been  avoided  by  canals.  Other 
canals  join  both  the  Mississippi  and  its  branches  with  Lake 
Erie,  so  that  there  is  an  internal  water  communication  be- 
tween the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  w^hole 
length  of  the  Mississippi  is  3160  miles,  but  if  the  Missouri 
be  considered  the  main  stem,  it  is  4265,  and  the  joint  stream 
drains  an  area  of  about  a  million  and  a  quarter  of  square  miles. 
The  breadth  of  the  river  nowhere  corresponds  with  its  length. 
At  the  confluence  of  the  Missouri  each  river  is  half  a  mile 
wide,  and  after  the  junction  of  the  Ohio  it  is  not  more.  The 
depth  is  168  feet  where  it  enters  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  at  New 
Orleans.  This  great  river  is  a  rapid,  desolating  torrent 
loaded  with  mud:  its  violent  floods,  by  the  melting  of  the 
snow  in  the  high  latitudes,  sweep  away  whole  forests,  by 
which  the  navigation  is  rendered  very  dangerous;  and  the 
trees,  being  matted  together  in  masses  man}'  yards  thick,  are 
carried  down  by  the  spring  floods,  and  deposited  over  the 
delta  and  Gulf  of  Mexico  for  hundreds  of  square  miles. 

North  America  can  boast  of  two  other  great  water  systems, 
one  from  the  eastern  versant  of  the  Alleghanies,  which  flows 
into  the  Atlantic,  and  another  from  the  western  versant  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  runs  into  the  Pacific. 

All  the  streams  that  flow  eastward  through  the  United 
States  to  the  Atlantic  are  short  and  comparatively  small,  but 
of  the  highest  utility,  because  many  of  them,  especially  those 
to  the  north,  end  in  gulfs  of  vast  magnitude,  and  the  whole 
are  so  united  by  canals,  that  few  places  are  not  accessible. 
by  water,  one  of  the  greatest  advantages  a  country  can  pos- 
sess. There  are  at  least  24  canals  in  the  United  States,  the 
whole  length  of  which  is  3101  miles. 

Many  of  the  streams  that  ultimately  come  to  the  Atlantic, 
rise  in  the  western  ridges  of  the  Alleghany  chain,  and  tra- 
verse its  longitudinal  valleys  before  leaving  the  mountains 
to  cross  the  Atlantic  slope,  which  terminates  in  a  precipitous 
ledge  for  300  miles  parallel  to  the  range.  By  falling  over 
this  rocky  barrier  in  long  rapids  and  picturesque  cascades, 
they  afford  an  enormous  and  extensive  water  power  :  and 
as  the  rivers  are  navigable  from  the  Atlantic  quite  across  the 
maritime  plains,  these  two  circumstances  have  determined 
the  location  of  most  of  the   principal  cities  of  the   United 


RIVERS    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA.  205 

States  at  the  foot  of  this  rocky  ledge,  which,  though  not 
more  than  300  feet  high,  has  had  a  greater  influence  on  the 
political  and  commercial  interests  of  the  Union,  than  the 
highest  chains  of  mountains  have  had  in  other  countries. 

The  watershed  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  lies  at  a  greater 
distance  from  the  Pacific  than  that  of  the  AUeghanies  from 
the  Atlantic  ;  consequently  the  rivers  are  longer,  but  they 
are  few  and  little  known.  The  largest  are  the  Oregon  or 
Colombia  and  the  Rio  Colorado.  The  former  has  its  source 
not  far  from  those  of  the  Rio  del  Norte,  and  after  an  exceed- 
ingly tortuous  course,  in  which  it  receives  many  tributaries, 
it  falls  into  the  Pacific  at  Astoria.  The  Colorado  is  a  Mex- 
ican stream,  which  comes  from  the  Sierra  Verde,  and  falls 
into  the  Gulf  of  California. 

There  are  many  streams  in  Central  America,  and  above  ten 
rivers  that  are  navigable  for  some  miles  ;  six  of  these  fall  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Caribbean  Sea,  and  four  into  the 
Pacific. 

The  Andes,  the  extensive  watershed  of  South  America, 
are  so  close  to  the  Pacific,  that,  excepting  a  few  small  streams 
at  their  southern  extremity,  there  are  no  rivers  on  that  side, 
and  even  the  streams  that  rise  in  the  western  Cordilleras  find 
their  way  to  the  eastern  plains. 

The  Magdalena,  at  the  northern  end  of  the  Andes,  though 
a  secondary  river  in  America,  is  620  miles  long.  It  rises  in 
the  central  chain,  at  the  divergence  of  the  Cordillera  of  Santa 
Fe  de  Bogota,  and  enters  the  Caribbean  Sea  by  various 
channels,  navigable  to  Honda.  The  Cauca,  its  only  feeder 
on  the  left^  comes  from  Popayan,  and  is  nearly  as  large  as 
its  primary,  to  which  it  runs  parallel  the  greater  part  of  its 
course.  Many  streams  join  the  Magdalena  on  the  right,  as 
the  Funzha,  which  waters  the  elevated  plain  of  Bogota  and 
forms  the  cataract  of  Tequendama,  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  wildest  scenes  in  the  Andes.  The  river  rushes  through 
a  chasm  30  feet  wide,  which  appears  to  have  been  formed 
by  an  earthquake  ;  and  at  a  double  bound  descends  530 
feet  into  a  dark  gloomy  pool,  illuminated  only  at  noon  by  a 
few  feeble  rays.  A  dense  cloud  of  vapour  rising  from  it 
is  visible  at  the  distance  of  15  miles.  At  the  top  the  vege- 
tation is  that  of  a  temperate  climate,  while  palms  grow  at 
the  bottom. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Magdalena,  all  the  water  from 
18 


206  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  inexhaustible  sources  of  the  Andes  is  poured  into  the 
Orinoco,  the  river  of  the  Amazons,  and  the  Rio  de  la  Plata, 
which  convey  it  eastward  across  the  continent  to  the  At- 
lantic. 

The  basins  of  these  three  rivers  are  separated  in  their 
lower  parts  by  the  mountains  and  high  lands  of  the  Parima 
and  Brazil  ;  but  the  upper  parts  of  the  basins  of  all  three, 
towards  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  form  an  extensive  level,  and 
are  only  divided  from  one  another  by  imperceptible  eleva- 
tions in  the  plains,  barely  sufficient  to  form  the  watersheds 
between  the  tributaries  of  these  majestic  rivers.  This  pecu- 
liar structure  is  the  cause  of  the  natural  canal  of  the  Cassi- 
quiare,  which  joins  the  upper  Orinoco  w-ith  the  Rio  Negro, 
a  principal  affluent  of  the  Amazons.  Ages  hence,  when  the 
wilds  are  inhabited  by  civilized  men,  the  tributaries  of  these 
three  great  rivers,  many  of  which  are  navigable  to  the  foot 
of  the  Andes,  will,  by  means  of  canals,  form  a  water  system 
infinitely  superior  to  any  that  now  exists. 

The  Orinoco,  altogether  a  Coloir.bian  river,  rises  in  the 
Sierra  del  Parima,  200  miles  east  of  Duida,  and  maintains  a 
westerly  course  to  San  Fernando  de  Atabapa,  where  it  re- 
ceives the  Atabapa,  and  Guaviare,  which  is  larger  than  the 
Danube,  and  here  ends  the  upper  Orinoco.  The  river  then 
forces  a  passage  through  the  Sierra  del  Parima,  and  runs 
due  north,  for  three  degrees  of  latitude,  between  banks 
almost  inaccessible  ;  its  bed  is  traversed  by  dykes  and  filled 
with  boulders  of  granite,  and  islands  clothed  with  a  variety  of 
magnificent  palm-trees.  Large  portions  of  the  river  are  here 
engulfed  in  crevices,  forming  subterranean  cascades  ;  and 
in  this  part  are  the  celebrated  falls  of  the  Atures  and  Apures, 
36  miles  apart,  which  are  heard  at  the  distance  of  many 
miles.  At  the  end  of  this  tumultuous  part  of  its  course  it  is 
joined  by  the  Apure,  a  very  large  river,  and  then  runs  east- 
ward to  its  moulh,  where  it  forms  a  large  deha,  and  enters 
the  Atlantic  by  many  channels.  As  the  upper  Orinoco  runs 
west,  and  the  lower  Orinoco  east,  it  makes  a  complete  cir- 
cuit round  the  Parima  mountains,  so  that  its  mouth  is  only 
two  degrees  distant  from  the  meridian  of  its  sources. 

The  Cassiquiare  leaves  the  Orinoco  at  the  point  where  the 
rapids  begin,  and  joins  the  Rio  Negro,  a  chief  tributary  of 
the  Amazons,  at  the  distance  of  180  miles. 

The  Orinoco  is  navigable  1000  miles,  and  at  all  seasons  ; 


RIVERS    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA. 


207 


a  fleet  might  ascend  it  from  the  Dragon's  mouth  to  within 
45  miles  of  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota.  It  receives  many  naviga- 
ble rivers,  of  which  the  Guaviare,  the  Atures,  and  the  Meta 
are  each  larger  than  the  Danube.  The  Meta  may  be 
ascended  to  the  foot  of  the  Andes  ;  its  mean  depth  is  36 
feet,  and  in  many  places  80  or  90.  It  rises  so  high  in  the 
Andes,  that  Baron  Humboldt  says  the  vegetable  productions 
at  its  source  differ  as  much  from  those  at  its  confluence  with 
the  Orinoco,  though  in  the  same  latitude,  as  the  vegetation 
of  France  does  from  that  of  Senegal.  The  larger  feeders  of 
the  Orinoco  come  from  the  Andes,  though  many  descend  to 
it  from  both  sides  of  the  Parima,  in  consequence  of  its  long 
circuit  among  these  mountains. 

The  basin  of  the  Orinoco  has  an  area  of  300,000  square 
miles,  of  which  the  upper  part  is  impenetrable  forest,  the 
lower  is  Llanos. 

The  floods  of  the  Orinoco,  like  those  of  all  rivers  entirely 
within  the  torrid  zone,  are  very  regular,  and  attain  their 
height  nearly  at  the  same  time  with  those  of  the  Ganges,  the 
Niger,  and  the  Gambia.  They  begin  to  swell  about  the  25th 
of  March,  and  arrive  at  their  full  and  begin  to  decrease  on 
the  25th  of  August.  The  inundations  are  very  great,  owing 
to  the  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  in  the  wooded  regions, 
which  exceeds  100  inches  in  a  year. 

Below  the  confluence  of  the  Apure,  the  river  is  three 
miles  and  a  quarter  broad,  but  during  the  floods  it  is  three 
times  as  much.  By  the  confluence  of  four  of  its  greatest 
tributaries,  at  the  point  at  w^hich  it  bends  to  the  east,  a  low 
inland  delta  is  formed,  in  consequence  of  which  3600  square 
miles  of  the  plain  are  under  water  during  the  inundation. 
The  Orinoco  in  many  parts  smells  of  musk,  from  the  number 
of  dead  crocodiles. 

Upper  Peru  is  the  cradle  of  the  Amazons,  the  greatest  of 
rivers.  It  issues  in  two  streams  from  the  Lauricocha  or 
Lake  Laura,  in  the  elevated  plain  of  Bombon,  on  the  summit 
of  the  Andes.  Joined  by  many  other  streams,  it  pursues  a 
northerly  course  between  the  lateral  Cordilleras,  till  it  bursts 
through  the  eastern  ridge  by  the  Pongo  or  pass  of  Manse- 
riche,  and  descends  to  the  flat  and  wooded  plain  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountains;  from  whence  it  flows  uniformly  eastward 
till  it  reaches  the  Atlantic,  having  accomplished  a  course  of 
3200  miles,  or  more  properly  4000,  including  its  windings, 


208  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

and  drained  an  area  of  two  millions  and  a  half  of  square 
miles,  which  is  ten  times  the  size  of  France.  In  some 
places  it  is  600  feet  deep  ;  it  is  navigable  2200  miles  from 
its  source,  and  is  96  miles  wide  at  its  mouth. 
■  The  name  of  this  river  is  three  times  changed  in  its  course  : 
it  is  known  as  the  Maranon  from  its  source  to  the  confluence 
of  the  Ucayale  ;  from  that  point  to  its  junction  with  the  Rio 
Negro,  it  is  called  the  Solimoes:  and  from  the  Rio  Negro  till 
it  enters  the  ocean,  it  is  the  river  of  the  Amazons. 

The  number,  length,  and  volume  of  its  tributaries  are  in  pro- 
portion to  its  magnitude,  even  the  affluents  of  its  affluents  are 
noble  streams.  More  than  20  superb  rivers,  navigable  al- 
most to  their  sources,  pour  their  waters  into  it,  and  streams 
of  less  importance  are  numberless.  Tw^o  of  the  largest,  the 
Huallago  and  Ucayale,  like  their  primary,  rise  in  the  plains 
of  Bombon  ;  the  former  has  its  origin  in  the  mining  district 
of  Pasco,  and  after  a  long  northern  course  between  the  Cor- 
dilleras it  breaks  through  a  gorge  similar  to  that  of  Manse- 
riche,  and  joins  the  Maranon  in  the  plains:  it  is  almost  a  mile 
broad  above  its  junction.  The  Spanish  Governor  of  Peru 
sent  Pedro  de  Ursoa  down  this  river,  in  the  year  1560,  to 
search  for  the  lake  of  Parima,  and  the  city  of  Ei  Dorado. 
The  Ucayale,  not  inferior  to  the  Maranon  itself,  rises  90 
miles  east  of  the  city  of  Lima.  In  a  course  of  1080  miles 
it  is  fed  by  accessories  from  an  enormous  extent  of  country, 
and  at  its  junction  with  the  main  stream,  near  the  mission  of 
San  Joachim  de  Omaquas,  a  line  of  50  fathoms  does  not 
reach  the  bottom.  By  these  streams  there  is  access  to  Peru, 
and  there  is  communication  between  the  Amazons  and  the 
most  distant  regions  around  by  the  other  navigable  feeders. 
On  the  south  it  is  connected  with  Bolivia  and  Brazil  by  the 
Beni  ;  and  the  Madiera,  which  is  its  greatest  affluent,  comes 
near  the  sources  of  the  Paraguay,  the  principal  accessory  of 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  The  river  of  the  Amazons  is  not  less 
extensively  connected  on  the  north.  The  high  lands  of 
Colombia  are  accessible  by  the  Putumoya,  the  Japura,  and 
other  great  navigable  rivers;  the  Rio  Negro,  nearly  nine 
miles  broad  a  little  way  above  its  junction  with  the  Amazons, 
unites  the  latter  with  the  Orinoco  by  the  Cassiquiare  ;  and 
lastly  the  sources  of  the  Rio  Branco  come  very  near  to  those 
of  the  Essequibo,  an  independent  river  of  Demerara. 

The  main  stream,  from  its  mouth,  nearly  throughout  its 


RIVERS    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA.  209 

length,  is  full  of  river  islands,  and  most  of  its  tributaries 
have  deltoid  branches  at  their  junction  with  it.  The  annual 
floods  of  the  Amazons  are  less  regular  than  those  of  the 
Orinoco,  and  as  the  two  rivers  are  in  different  hemispheres, 
they  occur  at  opposite  seasons.  The  Amazons  begins  to 
rise  in  December,  is  at  its  greatest  height  in  March,  and  its 
least  in  July  and  August.  The  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  in 
the  deep  forests  traversed  by  this  river  is  so  great,  that  were 
it  not  for  the  enormous  evaporation,  and  the  streams  that 
carry  it  off,  the  country  would  be  flooded  annually  to  the 
depth  of  eight  feet.  The  Amazons  is  divided  into  two 
branches  at  its  mouth,  of  which  one  joins  the  Para,  south  of 
the  island  of  Das  Joanes,  the  other  enters  the  ocean  to  the 
north  of  it. 

The  water  of  some  of  the  rivers  in  equatorial  America  is 
white  ;  in  others  it  is  of  a  deep  coffee  colour,  or  dark  green, 
when  seen  in  the  shade,  but  perfectly  transparent,  and  when 
ruffled  by  a  breeze,  of  a  vivid  green,  like  some  of  the  Swiss 
lakes.  In  Scotland  the  brown  waters  comes  from  peat 
mosses,  but  it  is  not  so  in  America,  as  they  occur  as  often  in 
forests  as  in  savannahs.  Mr.  Schomburgk  thinks  they  are 
stained  by  the  iron  in  the  granite;  however,  the  colouring 
matter  has  not  been  chemically  ascertained.  The  Orinoco 
and  the  Cassiquiare  are  white  ;  the  Rio  Negro  is  black,  as 
its  name  implies,  yet  the  water  does  not  stain  the  rocks, 
which  are  of  a  dazzling  white.  Black  waters  are  some- 
times, though  rarely,  found  on  the  table-land  of  the  Andes. 

The  Rio  de  la  Plata  forms  the  third  great  water  system  of 
South  America.  The  Rio  Grande,  its  principal  stream,  rises 
in  the  mountains  of  Minas  Geraes,  in  Brazil,  and  runs  500 
miles  on  the  table-land  from  N.  to  S.,  before  it  takes  the 
name  of  Parana.  For  more  than  100  miles  it  is  a  continued 
series  of  cataracts  and  rapids,  the  greatest  of  which  is  the 
Salta  Grande,  about  24'^  5'  S.  lat.  Above  the  fall  the  river 
is  three  miles  broad,  when  all  at  once  it  is  confiried  in  a 
rocky  pass  only  60  yards  wide,  through  which  it  rushes 
over  a  ledge  with  a  thunderous  noise,  heard  at  the  distance 
of  many  miles.  The  Parana  receives  three  large  rivers  on 
the  right ;  the  Paraguay,  the  Pilcomayo,  and  the  Vermejo, 
all  generally  tending  to  the  south,  unite  at  different  distances 
before  entering  their  primary  at  Corrientes.  The  Paraguay, 
1200  miles  long,  is  the  finest  of  these  ;  in  its  upper  part  it 
18* 


210  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

is  singularly  picturesque,  adorned  with  palms  and  other 
tropical  vegetation,  and  its  channel  islands  are  covered  with 
orange  groves.  It  springs  from  a  chain  of  seven  lakes,  in 
the  southern  slopes  of  the  Campos  Parecis,  in  Brazil,  and 
may  be  ascended  by  vessels  of  considerable  burthen  through 
19  degrees  of  latitude.  The  Pilcomayo  and  Verraejo,  both 
come  from  Bolivia  ;  the  former  traverses  the  desert  of  the 
Gran  Chaco,  the  latter  the  district  of  Tarija.  At  Santa  Fe 
the  La  Plata  turns  eastward,  and  before  entering  the  Atlantic 
is  augmented  by  the  Uruguay  from  the  north,  which  takes 
its  name  frona  the  turbulence  of  its  streams. 

The  Rio  de  la  Plata  is  2700  miles  long,  and  for  200  miles 
from  its  mouth,  up  to  Buenos  Ayres,  it  never  is  less  than 
170  miles  broad.  Were  it  not  for  the  freshness  of  its  water, 
it  might  be  mistaken  for  the  ocean  ;  it  is,  however,  shallow 
and  loaded  with  mud. 

The  Paraguay  is  subject  to  dreadful  floods  ;  in  1812  the 
atmosphere  was  poisoned  by  the  putrid  carcasses  of  drowned 
animals;  the  ordinary  annual  inundations  of  the  Parana,  the 
principal  or  upper  branch  of  the  La  Plata,  cover  36,000 
square  miles. 

In  consequence  of  the  vast  extent  of  the  very  level  plains 
along  the  base  of  the  Andes,  the  basins  of  the  three  great 
rivers  are  apparently  united.  So  small  are  the  elevations 
that  determine  their  direction,  that,  with  the  exception  of  a 
portage  of  three  miles,  a  vessel  might  sail  from  Buenos 
Ayres,  in  3b°  S.  lat.,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  in  9"  N. 
lat.,  by  inland  navigation. 

There  are  various  rivers  in  South  America  unconnected 
with  those  described,  which  in  any  other  country  would  be 
esteemed  of  a  high  order.  Of  many  that  descend  from  the 
mountains  of  Parima,  the  Essequibo  is  the  largest,  fed  by 
the  streams  of  Guiana.  Its  general  width  is  a  mile  and  a 
quarter  ;  its  w-ater,  though  black,  is  transparent ;  and  on  its 
banks,  and  those  of  all  its  adjuncts,  the  forest  reigns  in 
impenetrable  thickness. 

The  Para  and  San  Francisco  are  the  chief  Brazilian  rivers  : 
both  rise  on  the  table-land  :  the  former  results  from  the  union 
of  the  Tocantins  and  Araguay  ;  it  descends  from  the  high 
lands  in  rapids  in  its  northerly  course,  and  after  running 
1500  miles  joins  the  southern  branch  of  the  Amazons  before 
entering  the  Atlantic,  south  of  the  island  Das  Joanes.     The 


KIVERS    OF    AUSTRALIA.  211 

San  Francisco  is  only  1275  miles  long,  and  after  travelling 
northward  between  mountain-ranges  parallel  to  the  coast,  it 
breaks  through  them,  and  reaches  the  ocean  about  the  11th 
degree  S.  lat.  As  in  the  Appalachian  chain,  so  here  many 
little  rivers  come  down  the  edge  of  the  table-land  to  the  level 
maritime  plains  of  the  Atlantic. 

In  the  far  south  the  Rio  Negro,  and  sofne  other  streams 
from  the  Chilian  Andes,  run  through,  but  do  not  fertilize, 
the  desolate  plains  of  Patagonia. 

RIVERS  OF  NEW  HOLLAND. 

After  America,  the  land  of  the  river  and  the  flood,  New 
Holland  appears  in  more  than  its  usual  aridity.  The  absence 
of  large  rivers  is  one  of  the  greatest  impediments  to  the 
improvement  of  this  continent.  What  it  may  possess  in  the 
interior  is  not  known,  but  it  is  certain  that  no  large  river 
discharges  its  water  into  the  ocean,  and  most  of  the  small 
ones  are  absorbed  before  they  reach  it. 

The  streams  from  the  mountains  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
continent  are  mere  torrents,  and  would  have  short  courses 
did  they  not  run  in  longitudinal  valleys,  as,  for  example,  the 
Hawkesbury.  TheMurumbigee,theLach]anand  McQuarrie, 
formed  by  the  accumulation  of  mountain  torrents,  are  the 
largest. 

The  Murumbigee  rises  in  the  ranges  west  of  St.  George's 
Lake,  and  running  south-west,  meets  the  Lachlan,  of  un- 
known origin,  coming  from  the  east.  After  their  junction 
they  pass  through  the  Alexandrine  Marsh,  and  run  into  the 
Murray,  a  much  larger  stream,  though  only  350  feet  broad, 
and  not  more  than  20  feet  deep,  and  on  entering  the  ocean 
in  Endeavour  Bay  it  is  too  shallow  even  for  boats.  The 
Darling  is  supposed  to  be  merely  the  upper  part  of  the  Mur- 
ray, probably  rising  towards  the  head  of  St.  Vincent's  Gulf. 
The  origin  of  the  Macquarrie  is  unknown  :  it  is  called  the 
Fish  River,  between  Bathurst  and  Sydney  ;  after  running 
'600  miles  north-west,  it  is  lost  in  the  marshes. 

Swan  River,  on  the  western  side  of  the  continent,  has 
much  the  same  character  ;  and  from  that  river  to  the  Gulf 
of  Carpentaria,  along  the  whole  of  the  western  and  northern 
shores  of  the  continent,  there  are  none.  The  want  of  water 
makes  it  hardly  possible  to  explore  the  interior  of  this  con- 
tinent. 


212  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

LAKES NORTHERN  SYSTEM  OF  THE  GREAT  CONTINENT MOUN- 
TAIN SYSTEM  OF  THE    SAME AMERICAN   LAKES. 

The  hollows  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  by  the  ground 
sinking  or  rising,  earthquakes,  streams  of  lava,  the  intersec- 
tion of  Strata,  and  those  that  occur  along  the  edges  of  the 
different  formations,  are  generally  filled  with  water,  and  con- 
stitute systems  of  lakes,  some  salt  and  some  fresh.  Many  of 
the  former  may  be  remnants  of  an  ancient  ocean  left  in  the 
depression  of  its  bed  during  its  retreat  as  the  continents  arose. 

Almost  all  lakes  are  fed  by  springs  in  their  beds,  and  they 
are  occasionally  the  sources  of  the  largest  rivers.  Some  nei- 
ther receive  tributaries  nor  have  outlets:  the  greater  number 
do  both.  The  quantity  of  water  in  lakes  varies  with  the  sea- 
sons everywhere,  especially  from  the  melting  snow  on  moun- 
tain-chains and  high  latitudes,  and  between  the  tropics  from 
periodical  rains.  Small  lakes  occur  in  mountain  passes, 
formed  by  water  which  runs  into  them  from  the  commanding 
peaks:  they  are  frequently,  as  in  the  Alps,  very  transparent, 
of  a  bright  green  or  azure  hue.  Large  lakes  are  common  on 
table-lands  and  in  the  valleys  of  mountainoiis  countries,  but 
the  largest  are  on  extensive  plains.  The  basin  of  a  lake 
comprehends  all  the  land  drained  by  it;  consequently  it  is 
bounded  by  an  imaginary  line  passing  through  the  sources 
of  all  the  waters  that  fall  into  it. 

There  are  more  lakes  in  high  than  in  low  latitudes,  and 
in  this  respect  there  is  a  great  analogy  between  the  northern 
plains  of  the  two  principal  continents.  Sheets  of  water  of 
great  beauty  occur  in  the  mountain  valleys  of  the  British 
Islands,  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  countries  similar  in  geologi- 
cal structure;  and  besides  these,  there  are  two  regions  in  the 
old  world  in  which  lakes  particularly  abound.  One  begins  in 
the  low  coast  of  Holland,  goes  round  the  southern  and  eas- 
tern sides  of  the  Baltic,  often  passing  close  to  its  shores,  along 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  through  the  Siberian  plains  to  Beh- 
ring's  Straits.    The  lakes  which  cover  Finland,  and  the  great 


LAKES    IN    EUROPE.  213 

lakes  of  Ladoga  and  Onega,  lie  in  a  parallel  direction  :  they 
occupy  transverse  rents  which  had  taken  place  across  the 
palaeozoic  strata  while  rising  in  a  direction  from  S.W.  to  N.E. 
betw^een  the  Gulf  of  Finland  and  the  White  Sea;  that  eleva- 
tion was  perhaps  also  the  cause  of  the  cavities  now  occupied 
by  these  two  seas.  Ladoga  is  the  largest  lake  in  this  zone, 
having  a  surface  of  nearly  1000  square  miles.  It  receives 
tributary  streams  and  sends  off  its  superfluous  water  by  rivers, 
and  Onega  does  the  same  ;  but  the  multitude  of  small  steppe 
lakes  among  the  Ural  Mountains  and  in  the  basin  of  the  river 
Obi  neither  receive  nor  emit  rivers,  being  for  the  most  part 
mere  ponds,  though  of  great  size,  some  of  fresh,  some  of  salt 
water,  lying  close  together,  a  circumstance  which  has  not 
been  accounted  for ;  the  lakes  in  the  low  Siberian  plains  have 
the  same  character. 

The  second  system  of  lakes  in  the  old  continent  follows 
the  zone  of  the  mountain  mass,  and  comprehends  those  of  the 
Pyrenees,  Alps,  Apennines,  Asia  Minor,  the  Caspian,  the 
lake  of  Aral,  together  with  those  on  the  table-land  and  in  the 
mountains  of  central  Asia. 

In  the  Pyrenees  lakes  are  most  frequent  on  the  French  side ; 
many  are  at  such  altitudes  as  to  be  perpetually  frozen  :  one 
on  Monte  Perdido,  8393  feet  above  the  sea,  has  the  appear- 
ance of  an  ancient  volcanic  crater.  There  is  scarcely  a  val- 
ley in  the  Alpine  range  and  its  offsets  that  has  not  a  sheet  of 
water,  no  doubt  owing  to  the  cavities  formed  during  the  ele- 
vation of  the  ridges,  and  in  some  instances  to  subsidence  of 
the  soil.  There  are  more  lakes  on  the  north  than  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Alps — the  German  valleys  are  full  of  them.  In 
Bohemia,  Gallicia,and  Moravia,  there  are  no  less  than  30,000 
sheets  of  water,  besides  great  numbers  throughout  the  Aus- 
trian empire. 

Of  the  principal  lakes  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Alps,  the 
lake  of  Geneva,  or  lake  Leman,  is  the  most  beautiful,  from 
its  situation,  the  pure  azure  of  its  w^aters,  and  the  sublime 
mountains  that  surround  it.  Its  area,  of  about  100  square 
miles,  is  1150  feet  above  the  sea,  and  at  Meillerie  it  is  1000 
feet  deep.  The  lake  of  Lucerne  is  1400  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  the  lake  of  Brienz  1900  feet.  The  Italian  Alpine  lakes 
are  at  a  lower  level :  the  Lago  Maggiore  has  only  678  feet 
of  absolute  altitude:  they  are  larger  than  those  in  the  north, 
and  with  the  advantages  of  an  Italian  climate,  sky,  and  vege- 


214  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

tation,  they  surpass  the  others  in  beauty,  though  the  moun- 
tains that  surround  ihem  are  less  lofty. 

These  great  lakes  are  fed  by  streams  from  glaciers  in  the 
higher  Alps,  and  many  large  rivers  issue  from  them.  In  this 
respect  they  differ  from  most  of  the  lakes  in  lower  Italy,  which, 
with  few  exceptions,  are  craters  of  ancient  volcanoes,  or  per- 
haps ancient  craters  of  elevation,  where  the  earth  had  been 
swelled  up  by  subterranean  vapour  without  bursting,  and  had 
sunk  down  again  into  a  hollow  when  the  internal  pressure 
was  removed. 

In  Syria,  the  lake  of  Tiberias  and  the  Dead  Sea,  sacred 
I  memorials  to  the  Christian  world,  are  situate  in  the  deepest 
<  cavity  on   the  earth.     The  surface  of  the    former,  466  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  is  adorned  with  ver- 
dant plains  and   aromatic  shrubs;  while    the    heavy,  bitter 
waters  of  the  Dead  Sea,  1312  feet  below  the  same  level,  is 
a  scene  of  indescribable  desolation  and  solitude,  encompassed 
,     by  deseit  sands,  and   bleak,  stony  salt-hills.     Thus  there   is 
:'     a  difference  of  level  of  1000  feet  in  little  more  than  60  miles, 
which  makes  the  course  of  the  Jordan  very  rapid.    The  water 
of  the  Dead  Sea  is  so  acrid  that  it  irrit?ites  the  skin  ;  and  as 
it  contains  26-24  per  cent,  of  chlorides,  it  is  more  buoyant, 
and  contains  a    greater  proportion  of  salt,  than  any  that  is 
known,  except  the  small  lake  of  Elton,  east  of  the  Volga. 

Though  extensive  sheets  of  water  exist  in   many  parts  of 
Asia  Minor,  especially  in  Bithynia,  yet  the  characteristic  fea- 
ture of  that  country,  and  of  all  the  table-land  of  Western  Asia 
and  the  adjacent  steppes,  is  the    number  and   magnitude  of 
the  saline  lakes.    A  region  of  salt  lakes  and  marshes  extends 
at  least  200  miles  along  the  northern  foot  of  the  Taurus  range, 
on  a  very  elevated  part  of  the  table-land  of  Anatolia.    There 
are  also  many  detached  lakes,  some  exceedingly  saline.    Fish 
cannot  live  in  the  lake  of  Toozla,  and  if  a  bird  dips  its  wings 
in  the  water,  they  are  incrusted  with   salt  on  drying:  it  is 
shallow  and  subject  to  excessive  evaporation.     Neither  can 
any  animal  exist  in  the  lake  of  Shahee  or  Urmiah,  on  the  con- 
fines of  Persia  and  Armenia,  300  miles  in  circumference:  its 
water  is  perfectly  clear,  and  contains  a  fourth  part  of  its 
weight  of  saline  matter.    These  lakes  are  fed  by  springs,  rain, 
and  melted  snow,  and  having  no  emissaries, the  surplus  water 
is  carried  off  by  evaporation. 

It  is  possible  that  the  volcanic  soil  of  the  table-land  may 


LAKES    IN    ASIA.  215 

be  the  cause  of  this  exuberance  of  salt  water;  yet  there  are 
many  fresh-water  lakes  in  their  immediate  vicinity.  Lake 
Van,  a  sheet  of  fresh  water,  240  miles  in  circumference,  is 
separated  from  the  salt  lake  Urmiah  only  by  a  range  of  hills, 
and  there  are  many  other  pieces  of  fresh  water  in  that  neigh- 
bourhood. 

Persia  is  singularly  destitute  of  water:  the  lake  of  Zorah, 
on  the  frontiers  of  Afghanistan,  having  an  area  of  18  square 
miles,  is  the  only  piece  of  water  on  the  western  part  of  the 
table-land  of  Iran. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  saline  nature  of  the  soil  and  the 
shells  it  contains,  that  the  plains  round  the  Caspian,  the  lake 
of  x\ral,  and  the  steppes,  even  to  the  Ural  Mountains,  had 
once  formed  part  of  the  Black  Sea.  57,000  square  miles  of 
that  country  are  depressed  below  the  level  of  the  ocean,  a 
depression  which  extends  northwards  beyond  the  town  of 
Saratov,  300  miles  distant  from  the  Caspian.  The  surface 
of  the  Caspian  itself,  which  is  83-6  feet  below  the  level  of 
the  ocean,  is  its  lowest  part,  and  has  an  area  of  18,000  squar-e 
miles,  nearly  equal  to  the  area  of  Spain.  In  Europe  alone 
it  drains  an  extent  of  850,000  square  miles,  receiving  the 
Volga,  the  Ural,  and  other  great  rivers  on  the  north.  It  has 
no  tide,  and  its  navigation  is  dangerous  from  heavy  gales, 
especially  from  the  S.E.,  which  drive  the  water  miles  over 
the  land  :  a  vessel  was  stranded  46  miles  inland  from  the 
shore.  It  is  600  feet  deep  to  the  south,  but  is  shallower  to 
the  east,  where  it  is  bounded  by  impassable  swamps  many 
miles  broad.  The  lake  Elton,  on  the  steppe  east  of  the  Volga, 
has  an  area  of  130  square  miles,  and  furnishes  two-thirds 
of  the  salt  consumed  in  Russia.  Its  water  yields  29*13  per 
cent,  of  solid  matter,  while  the  water  of  the  Dead  Sea  has 
26-24  per  cent,  of  saline  ingredients  ;  but  it  contains  sul- 
phate of  magnesia,  whereas  Lake  Elton  has  chloride  of 
calcium. 

The  lake  of  Aral,  which  is  shallow,  is  higher  than  the  Cas- 
pian, and  has  an  area  of  3372  square  miles.  It  has  its  name 
from  the  number  of  small  islands  at  its  southern  end,  Aral  sig- 
nifying "  island"  in  the  Tartar  language.  Neither  the  Caspian 
nor  the  lake  of  Aral  have  any  outlets  ;  though  they  receive 
large  rivers,  they,  and  all  the  lakes  in  Persia,  are  decreasing 
in  extent  and  becoming  more  salt,  the  quantity  of  water  sup- 
plied by  tributaries  being  less  than  that  lost  by  evaporation. 


216  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Most  of  the  rivers  that  are  tributary  to  the  lake  of  Aral  are 
diminished  by  canals  that  carry  off  water  for  irrigation  ;  for 
that  reason  the  Oxus  never  reaches  the  lake.  Besides,  the 
Russian  rivers  yield  less  water  than  formerly,  from  the  pro- 
gress of  culture. 

The  absence  of  lakes  in  the  Himalaya  is  one  of  the  pecu- 
liarities of  these  mountains.  The  lake  of  Ular,  in  the  valley 
of  Cashmere,  is  the  only  one  of  any  magnitude  :  it  is  but  40 
miles  in  circumference,  and  seems  to  be  the  residue  of  one 
that  had  filled  the  whole  valley  at  some  early  period.  There 
are  many  great  lakes,  both  fresh  and  salt,  in  the  table-land  : 
the  annular  form  of  Lake  Palte,  at  the  northern  base  of  the 
Himalaya,  is  unexampled,  and  the  height  of  the  sacred  lake 
of  Manasa,  in  Great  Tibet,  is  equally  so,  being  17,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Tibet  is  full  of  lakes,  many  of 
which  produce  borax,  found  nowhere  else  but  in  Tuscany 
and  the  Lipari  Islands.  As  most  of  the  great  lakes  on  the 
table-land  are  in  the  Chinese  territories,  strangers  have  not 
had  access  to  them  ;  but  the  Koko-nor  and  Lake  Lop  seem 
to  be  very  large  ;  the  latter  is  said  to  have  a  surface  of  2187 
square  miles,  and  there  are  others  not  inferior  to  it  in  the 
north.  The  lakes  in  the  Altai  are  beautiful,  larger,  and  more 
numerous  than  in  any  other  mountain-chain.  They  are  at 
different  elevations  on  the  terraces  by  which  the  table-land 
descends  to  the  flats  of  Siberia,  and  are,  owing  to  geological 
phenomena,  essentially  different  from  those  which  have  pro- 
duced the  Caspian  and  other  steppe  lakes.  They  seem  to 
have  been  hollows  formed  where  the  axes  of  the  different 
branches  of  the  chain  cross,  and  are  most  numerous  and  deep- 
est in  the  eastern  Altai.  Baikal,  the  largest  mountain  lake, 
supposed  to  owe  its  origin  to  the  sinking  of  the  ground  during 
an  earthquake,  has  an  area  of  14,800  square  miles,  nearly 
equal  to  the  half  of  Scotland.  It  lies  buried  in  the  form  of 
a  crescent  amid  lofty  granite  mountains  which  constitute  the 
edge  of  the  table-land  to  the  south,  ending  in  the  desert  of 
the  Great  Gobi,  and  in  the  north-west  they  gird  the  shore  so 
closely  that  they  dip  into  the  water  in  many  places:  160 
rivers  and  streams  are  tributary  to  this  salt  lake,  which  drains 
a  country  probably  twice  the  size  of  Britain.  The  river  An- 
gara, which  runs  deep  and  strong  through  a  crevice  at  its 
eastern  end,  is  its  principal  outlet,  and  is  supposed  to  carry 
off  but  a  small  proportion  of  its  water.     Its  surface  is  1793 


LAKES    IN    AFRICA. 


217 


feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  the  climate  is  as  severe  as  it  is 
in  Europe  10°  farther  north,  yet  the  lake  does  not  freeze  till 
the  middle  of  December,  possibly  from  being  unfathomable 
with  a  line  600  feet  long. 

Two  hundred  and  eighty  years  before  the  Christian  era 
the  large  fresh- water  lake  of  Oitz,  in  Japan,  was  formed  in 
one  night  by  a  prodigious  sinking  of  the  ground,  at  the  same 
time  that  one  of  the  highest  and  most  active  volcanoes  in  that 
country  rose  from  the  depths  of  the  earth. 

Very  extensive  lakes  occur  in  Africa,  and  notwithstanding 
the  arid  soil  of  the  southern  table-land,  it  contains  the  fresh- 
water lake  of  N'yassi,  one  of  the  largest,  being  some  hundred 
miles  long,  and  though  narrow  in   proportion,  it  cannot  be 
crossed  in  a  boat  of  the  country  in  less  than  three  days,  rest- 
ing at  night  on  an  island,  of  which  there  are  many.    It  begms 
200  miles  north  from  the  town  of  Tete,  on  the  river  Zambeze, 
and   extends  from   south-east  to  north-west    to  a  very  great 
but  unknown  distance,  and  between  300  and  400  miles  from 
the  Mozambique  channel.    No  river  is  known  to  flow  out  of 
it,  but  it  receives  the  drainage  of  the  country  on  the  south- 
west.    No  one  knows  what  there  maybe  on  the  unexplored 
regions  of  the  Ethiopian  desert,  but  Abyssinia  has  the  large 
and  beautiful  lake  of  Dembea,  situate  in  a  spacious  plain,  the 
granary  of  the  country,  and  so  high  above  the  sea,  that  spring 
is   perpetual,  though  within   the  tropics.     There   are  other 
lakes  in  this   great  projecting   promontory  so  full  of  rivers, 
mountains,  and  forests,  but  the  low  lands  of  Soudan,  the  coun- 
try lying  along  the  base  of  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon,  in  the 
principal  region  of  African  lakes,  of  which  the  Chad,  almost 
the  size  of  an  inland  sea,  is  in  the  very  centre  of  the  conti- 
nent.   Its  extent,  and  the  size  of  its  basin,  are  unknown,  but 
it  receives  many  affluents  from  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon, 
and  is  itself  drained  by  the  Chadda,  a  principal  tributary  of 
the  Niger.      Other  lakes  of  less  magnitude  are  known  to  exist 
in  these  regions,  and  there  are  probably  many  more  that  are 
unknown.     Salt-water  lakes  are  numerous  on  the  northern 
boundaries  of  the  great  lowland  deserts,  and  many  fine  sheets 
of  fresh  water  are  found  in  the  valleys  and  flat  terraces  of  the 
Great  and  Little  Atlas. 

Fresh-water  lakes  are  characteristic  of  the  higher  latitudes 
of  both  continents,  but  those  in  the  old  continent  sink  into 
insignificance  in  comparison  with  the  number  and  extent  of 
19 


218  ■  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

those  in  the  new.     Indeed   a  very  lar^e  portion   of  North 
America  is  covered  with  fresh  water;  the  five  principal  lakes, 
Superior,  Huron,  Michigan,  Erie,  and  Ontario,  with  some  of 
their  dependents,  probably  cover  an  area  of  100,000  square 
miles,  that  of  Lake  Superior  alone  43,000,  which  is  only 
7000  square  miles  less  than  the  whole  of  England.     The 
American  lakes  contain  more  than  half  the  amount  of  fresh 
water  on  the  globe.     The  altitude  of  these  lakes  shows  the 
slope  of  the  continent:  the  absolute  elevation  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior is  627  feet,  Lake  Huron  is  30  feet  lower,  Lake  Erie  32 
feet   lower  than   the  Huron,  and   Lake  Ontario  is  331   feet 
below  the   level  of  Erie.     The  river  Niagara,  which  unites 
these  two  last  lakes,  is  33J  miles  long,  and  in  that  distance 
it  descends  66  feet;  it  falls  in  rapids  through  55  feet  of  that 
height  in  the  last  half-mile,  but  the  upper  part  of  its  course 
is  navigable.     The  height  of  the  cascade  of  Niagara  is   162 
feet  on  the  American  side  of  the  central  island,  and  1125  feet 
wide.     On  the  Canadian  side  the  fall  is   149  feet  high,  and 
2100  feet  wide — the  most  magnificent  sheet  of  falling  water 
known,  though  many  are  higher.     The  river  St.  Lawrence, 
which  drains  the  whole,  slopes  234  feet  between  the  bottom 
of  the  cascade  and  the  sea.     The  beds  of  lakes  Superior  and 
-Ontario  are  respectively  165  and  336  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  Atlantic,  affording  anotlier  instance  of  deep  indenta- 
tion in  the  solid  matter  of  the  globe.     Some   lakes  are  de- 
creasing in  magnitude,  but  the  contrary  seems  to  be  the  case 
in  America;  between  the  years  1825  and  1838  Ontario  rose 
nearly  seven  feet,  and   according  to  the  American  engineers 
Lake  Erie  had  gained  several  feet  in  the  same  time.     Lake 
Huron  is  said  to   be  the   focus  of  peculiar  electrical   pheno- 
mena, as  thunder  is  constantly  heard  in  one  of  its  bays.    The 
lakes  north  of  this  group  are  innumerable:  the  whole  country, 
to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  is  covered  with  sheets  of  water  which 
emit  rivers  and  streams.     Lake  Winnipeg,  Rein-deer  Lake, 
Slave  Lake,  and  some  others,  may  be  regarded  as  the  chief 
members  of  separate  groups  or  basins,  each  embracing  a  wide 
extent  of  country  almost   unknown.     There   are  also   many 
lakes  on  each  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  Mexico 
there  are  six  or  seven  lakes  of  considerable  size,  though  not 
to  be  compared  with  those  in  North  America  ;  the  largest  is 
the  lake  of  Tezcuco,  on  the  west  bank  of  which  the  city  of 
Mexico  is  built. 


LAKES    IN    SOUTH    AMERICA.  219 

There  are  various  sheets  of  water  in  Central  America,  but 
only  two  of  any  magnitude,  namely,  Lake  Izaval,  out  of 
which  the  Rio  Dulce  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the 
lake  of  Nicaragua,  in  the  province  of  that  name,  about  101) 
miles  from  the  sea  of  the  Antilles. 

In  Central  America  the  Andes  are  interrupted  by  plains 
and  mere  hills  on  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  and  that  of 
Panama,  on  each  of  which  there  is  a  series  of  lakes  and  rivers, 
which,  aided  by  canals,  might  form  a  water  communication 
between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans.  In  the  former  the 
line  proposed  would  connect  the  river  Huasacula,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  with  the  bay  of  Tehuantepec,  in  the  Pacific. 
In  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  the  Gulf  of  St.  Juan  would  be 
connected,  by  the  river  of  that  name  and  the  large  lake  of 
Nicaragua,  with  the  Gulf  of  Costa  Rica.  Here  the  water- 
shed is  only  615  feet  above  the  sea,  and  of  easy  excavation, 
and  the  lake,  situated  in  an  extensive  plain,  is  deep  enough 
for  vessels  of  considerable  size. 

A  range  of  lakes  goes  along  the  eastern  base  of  the  Andes, 
but  the  greater  part  of  them  are   mere   lagoons  or  marshes; 
some  very  large,  which  inundate  the  country  to  a  great  ex- 
tent in  the  tropical  rains.     There  appears  to  be  a  deep  hol- 
low in  the  surface  of  the  earth  at  the   part  where  Bolivia, 
Brazil,  and  Paraguay  meet,  in  which  lies  the  Lake  Xaragas, 
extending  on  each  side  of  the  river  Paraguay,  but,  like  many 
South  American  lakes,  it  is  not  permanent,  being  alternately 
inundated  and  dry,  or  a  marsh.    Its  inundations  cover  36,000 
square  miles.      Salt  and    fresh-water  lakes  are  numerous  on 
the  plains  of  La  Plata,  and  near  the  Andes  in  Patagonia,  re- 
sembling  in  this   respect  those  in  high   northern  latitudes, 
though  on  a  narrower  scale. 

In  the  elevated  mountain-valleys  and  table-lands  of  the 
Andes  there  are  many  small  lakes  of  the  purest  blue  ar^^ 
green  colours,  intensely  cold,  being  mostly  above  the  line  ot 
perpetual  congelation.  They  are  generally  lifeless  and  un- 
fathomably  deep,  probably  the  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes. 
The  lake  of  Titicaca,  however,  in  the  Bolivian  Andes,  has 
an  area  of  4600  square  miles,  and  is  more  than  120  fathoms 
deep,  surrounded  by  splendid  scenery.  Though  12,795  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  Pacific,  its  banks  are  clothed  with  turf 
where  they  are  not  cultivated,  and  in  former  times  were  the 
seat  of  advanced  civilization,  to  which  the  ruins  bear  testi- 
mony. 


220  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  limpid  transparency  of  the  water  in  lakes,  especially 
in  mountainous  countries,  is  remarkable;  minute  objects  are 
visible  at  the  bottom,  through  many  fathoms  of  water.  The 
vivid  green  tints,  so  often  observed  in  alpine  lakes,  may  be 
produced  by  vegetable  dyes  dissolved  in  the  water,  though 
chemical  analysis  has  not  detected  them. 

Lakes,  being  the  sources  of  some  of  the  largest  rivers,  are 
of  great  importance  for  inland  navigation,  as  well  as  for  irri- 
gation;  while  by  their  constant  evaporation  they  maintain 
the  supply  of  humidity  in  the  atmosphere,  so  essential  to  ve- 
getation, besides  the  embellishment  a  country  derives  from 
their  limpid  and  glassy  waters. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


The  annual  supply  of  heat  which  the  earth  receives  from  the 
sun  is  always  the  same,  and  it  is  annually  radiated  into  space, 
so  that  it  neither  accumulates  in  the  earth  nor  in  the  atmos- 
phere. Its  distribution  is  very  unequal,  but  certain  it  is  that 
an  excess  of  heat  in  one  part  of  the  globe  is  compensated  by 
a  deficiency  in  another ;  an  unusually  warm  summer  is 
balanced  by  a  cold  one  elsewhere.  Diurnal  variations  of  heat 
are  perceptible  only  at  a  small  distance  below  the  surface, 
because  the  earth  is  a  bad  conductor,  the  annual  heating  in- 
fluence of  the  sun  penetrates  much  deeper.  The  heat  which 
enters  the  earth  in  summer,  returns  during  winter;  and  be- 
fore passing  into  space,  tempers  the  cold  in  the  higher  lati- 
tudes. At  the  equator,  where  the  heat  is  the  greatest,  it  de- 
scends deeper  than  elsewhere,  with  a  diminishing  intensity  ; 
but  there,  and  everywhere  throughout  the  globe,  there  is  a 
stratum,  at  the  depth  of  from  40  to  100  feet  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  where  the  temperature  never  varies,  and 
is  nearly  the  same  with  the  mean  heat  of  the  surface. 

At  least  one-third  of  the  sun's  heat  is  absorbed  by  the  air 
before  reaching  the  earth,  but  the  atmosphere  is  chiefly 
warmed  by  the  radiation  of  the  sun's  heat  from  the  earth  in 
its  return  to  space,  which  takes  place  most  abundantly  when 


ATMOSPHERIC  CURRENTS.  221 

the  sky  is  clear  and  blue.  It  is  intercepted  by  clouds,  so  that 
a  thermometer  rises  in  cloudy  weather,  and  sinks  when  the 
air  becomes  clear  and  calm;  even  a  slight  mist  diminishes 
radiation  from  the"  earth,  because  it  returns  as  much  heat  as 
it  receives. 

The  superficial  temperature  of  the  earth  is  great  at  the 
equator,  it  decreases  gradually  towardsthe  poles,  and  is  an 
exact  mean  between  the  two  at  the  45th  parallel  of  latitude; 
but  a  multitude  of  causes  disturb  this  law.  It  is  affected 
chiefly  by  the  unequal  distribution  of  land  and  water,  by  the 
height  above  the  sea,  by  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  by  vege- 
tation, so  that  a  line  drawn  on  a  map  through  all  the  places 
Avhere  the  mean  temperature  of  the  earth  is  the  same,  would 
be  very  far  from  coinciding  with  the  parallels  of  latitude,  but 
would  approximate  more  to  them  near  the  equator. 

Every  thing  that  lives  on  earth  depends  upon  the  atmos- 
phere, the  source  of  life  and  heat  to  animated  nature.  The 
air,  being  a  heavy  and  elastic  fluid,  decreases  in  density  up- 
wards according  to  a  determinate  law,  so  rapidly  that  three- 
fourths  of  it  are  within  four  miles  of  the  earth,  and  all  the 
meteoric  phenomena  perceptible  to  us,  as  clouds,  rain,  heat, 
and  thunder,  occur  in  that  space,  though  the  height  of  the 
atmosphere  is  about  50  miles.  The  actual  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  is  about  15  pounds  on  every  square  inch,  dimi- 
nishing of  course  with  the  height.  The  density  is  liable  to 
continual  changes  from  the  temperature,  and  the  attraction 
of  the  sun  and  moon,  which  produce  tides  similar  to  those 
in  the  ocean.  All  these  changes  are  responded  to  by  varia- 
tions in  the  height  of  the  barometer. 

The  air  expands  and  becomes  lighter  with  heat,  and  con- 
tracts and  becomes  heavier  with  cold  ;  hence  at  the  equator, 
where  the  sun  is  so  powerful,  the  light  warm  air  is  con- 
stantly ascending  to  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  flowing  north  and  south  towards  the  poles,  from  whence 
the  cold  heavy  air  rushes  along  the  surface  of  the  earth  to 
supply  its  place  between  the  tropics,  for  the  same  tendency 
to  restore  equilibrium  exists  in  the  air  as  in  other  fluids. 
The  two  superficial  currents  are  relatively  deflected  from 
their  meridional  directions  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  so 
that  the  northern  current  becomes  a  north-east  wind  before 
arriving  at  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  and  the  southern  current 
becomes  a  south-east  wind  before  it  comes  to  the  tropic  of 
19* 


222  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Capricorn.  At  the  equator  they  so  completely  neutralize 
each  other,  that  far  at  sea  a  candle  burns  without  flickering. 
In  fact,  the  difference  of  temperature  puts  the  air  in  motion, 
and  the  direction  of  the  resulting  wind  at  every  place  de- 
pends upon  the  difference  between  the  rotatory  motion  of 
the  wind  and  the  rotatory  motion  of  the  earth — the  whole- 
theory  of  the  winds  depends  upon  these  circumstances. 

The  trade-winds  and  monsoons  are  permanent,  depending 
on  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  ;   but  it  is   evident,  from 
theory,  that  there  must  be  partial  winds  in  all  parts  of  the 
earth,  occasioned  by  local  circumstances  that  affect  the  tem- 
perature of  the  air  ;  consequently  the  atmosphere  is  divided 
into  districts  both  over  the  sea  and  land,  in  which  the  winds 
have  nearly  the   same   vicissitudes  from   year  to  year,  and 
the   regularity  is    greatest  towards  the   tropics,  where  the 
causes  of  disturbance  are  fewer.     In  the  higher  latitudes  it 
is  more  difficult  to  discover  any  regularity,  on  account  of  the 
greater   proportion  of  land,  the   difference  in   its   radiating 
power,  and  the  greater  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.    But  even 
there  a  degree  of  uniformity  prevails  in  the  succession  of  the 
winds.     For  example,  in  all   places  where  north  and  south 
winds  blow  alternately,  a  vane  veers  through  every  point  of 
the  compass  in  the  transition,  and  in  some  places  the  wind 
makes  several  of  these  gyrations  in  the  course  of  the  year. 
The    south-westerly   winds,    so   prevalent    in    the    Atlantic 
Ocean  between  the  30th  and  60th  degrees  of  north  latitude, 
are  produced  by  the  upper  current   being   driven   down   to 
supply  the  superficial  current  which  goes  towards  the  equator ; 
and  as  it  has  a    greater   rotatory  motion  than  the   earth    in 
these  latitudes,  it  produces  a   south-westerly  wind.     North- 
w^esterly  winds  prevail  in  the  corresponding  latitudes  of  the 
southern  hemisphere  from  the  same  cause.     In  fact,  when- 
ever the  air  has  a  greater  velocity  of  rotation  than  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  a  wind  more  or  less  westerly  is  produced,  and, 
when  it  has  less  velocity  of  rotation  than  the  earth,  a  wind 
having  an  easterly  tendency  results.     Thus  there  is  a  per- 
petual exchange  between  the  different  masses  of  the  atmos- 
phere, the  warm  air  tempering  the  cold  of  the  higher  lati- 
tudes, and  the  cold  air  mitigating  the  heat  of  the  lower  ;  it 
will  be  shown  afterwards   that  the  aerial   currents  are   the 
bearers  of  principles  on  which  the  life  of  the   animal  and 
vegetable  world  depends.     The  trade- winds,  being  constant. 


VARIATIONS    OF    TEMPERATURE.  223 

are  essentially  connected  with  an  equatorial  permanent  de- 
pression in  the  barometer,  but  the  mercurial  column  varies 
in  every  other  part  of  the  globe  with  a  change  in  the  density 
of  the  air  and  the  resulting  wind  ;  indeed,  the  barometer 
gives  the  surest  indication  of  an  approaching  change,  often 
warning  the  mariner  of  the  gale  long  ere  it  takes  place. 
Here  it  may  truly  be  said  that  "  coming  events  cast  their 
shadows  before." 

Since  the  atmosphere  is  chiefly  warmed  by  heat  transmitted 
from  the  earth,  the  temperature  of  the  air  decreases  as  the 
height  above  the  earth  increases,  so  that  at  a  very  small 
elevation  the  cold  becomes  excessive,  as  on  the  tops  of 
mountains.  This  circumstance  is  marked  by  the  line  of 
perpetual  snow,  which  is  subject  to  many  variations,  but 
on  the  mountains  under  the  equator  it  has  a  mean  height  of 
15,207  feet,  from  whence  it  diminishes  on  both  sides,  and  at 
last  grazes  the  surface  at  the  arctic  and  antarctic  circles. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  air  would  be  constant 
on  each  parallel  of  latitude,  and  would  decrease  regularly 
from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  were  it  not  for  the  inequalities 
in  the  form  and  nature  of  the  surface  of  the  globe.  But  these 
causes  of  disturbance  are  so  great  that  lines  drawn  on  a  map 
through  all  places  having  the  same  mean  annual  temperature 
are  exceedingly  irregular,  except  towards  the  equator,  where 
they  become  nearly  parallel  to  it.  As  the  air  receives  most 
of  its  warmth  from  the  earth,  radiation  is  the  principal  cause 
of  disturbance  ;  hence  the  temperature  is  most  powerfully 
modified  by  the  ocean,  which  occupies  three  times  as  much 
of  the  surface  of  the  globe  as  the  land,  and  is  more  uniform 
in  its  surface,  and  also  in  radiating  power.  On  land,  the 
difference  in  the  radiating  force  of  the  mountains  and  table- 
lands from  that  of  the  plains,  of  the  deserts  from  grounds 
covered  with  rich  vegetation,  of  the  wet  land  from  the  dry, 
is  the  most  general  cause  of  variation  ;  the  local  causes  are 
beyond  enumeration. 

Places  having  the  same  mean  annual  temperature  often 
differ  materially  in  climate  ;  in  one  the  winters  are  mild  and 
the  summers  cool,  whereas  in  others  the  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold  prevail  :  England  is  an  example  of  the  first ;  Que- 
bec, Petersburg,  and  the  arctic  lands  are  instances  of  the 
latter.  It  follows,  as  a  consequence  of  the  same  quantity  of 
heat  being  received  annually  from  the   sun,  and   annually 


224  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

radiated  into  space,  that  all  the  climates  of  the  earth  are 
stable,  and  that  the  vicissitudes  are  merely  cycles  that  vanish 
after  a  few  years.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  earth 
may  be  affected  by  secular  changes  of  temperature  during 
the  progress  of  the  solar  system  through  space. 

Moisture  is  evaporated  in  an  invisible  form  from  every 
part  of  the  land  and  water,  but  in  very  different  quantities. 
Seven-tenths  of  the  atmosphere  rest  on  the  ocean,  therefore 
the  sea  has  the  greatest  influence  in  modifying  the  climates 
on  the  land  and  supplying  the  air  with  moisture.  The 
evaporation  is  greatest  between  the  tropics,  from  the  excess 
of  heat,  the  preponderance  of  the  ocean,  and  the  rankness 
of  vegetation.  The  average  quantity  of  vapour  decreases 
from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  and  from  the  lower  to  the 
higher  part  of  the  atmosphere.  The  absolute  quantity  is 
very  partial  and  irregular,  depending  everywhere  on  the 
dryness  or  humidity  of  the  surface.  As  the  vapour  ascends 
in  the  atmosphere,  it  maintains  its  invisible  form  till  it  reaches 
a  stratum  of  air  of  lower  temperature,  when  it  is  condensed 
into  clouds,  and  is  thence  precipitated  in  the  form  of  rain, 
hail,  or  snow.  Its  dispersion  and  condensation  are  owing 
to  the  winds,  the  great  agents  in  all  atmospheric  changes. 
From  friction  and  other  causes,  the  currents  of  air  in  the 
lower  parts  of  the  atmosphere  run  on  each  other  horizontally  ; 
and  as  they  generally  differ  in  moisture,  temperature,  and 
velocity,  to  them  is  due  the  formation  of  clouds,  rain,  and 
the  generation  of  electricity.  When  two  masses  of  air  of 
different  temperatures  meet,  the  colder,  by  absorbing  the  heat 
which  holds  the  moisture  in  solution,  occasions  the  particles 
to  coalesce  and  form  drops  of  water,  which  fall  by  their 
gravitation  ;  and  w^hen  two  strata  of  air  of  different  tempera- 
tures, moving  rapidly  in  opposite  directions,  come  into  con- 
tact, an  abundant  fall  of  rain  is  the  consequence,  and,  as  in 
tropical  countries  the  quantity  of  aqueous  vapour  is  greatest, 
the  rain-drops  are  largest,  and  the  rain  heaviest. 

The  atmosphere,  when  clear,  is  almost  always  positively 
electric.  The  electricity  arises  from  evaporation  and  the 
chemical  changes  which  are  perpetually  in  progress  all  over 
the  globe ;  and  as  they  sometimes  generate  positive  and 
sometimes  negative  electricity,  they  occasion  great  local 
variations  in  the  electricity  of  the  air,  but  the  earth  itself  is 
always  in  a  negative  state.     It  has  been  considered  by  some 


DIAMAGNETISM  OF  THE  GLOBE.  225 

meteorologists  that  clouds  owe  their  form  to  the  electric 
fluid,  because,  when  two  strata  of  air  are  of  different  tempe- 
ratures, and  move  in  different  directions,  a  portion  of  their 
aqueous  vapour  is  deposited,  and  the  electricity  evolved  is 
taken  up  by  the  remaining  vapour,  which  causes  it  to  assume 
the  form  of  a  cloud.  Electricity  of  each  kind  is  probably 
elicited  by  the  friction  of  streams  of  air  moving  rapidly  in 
different  directions,  and  when  clouds  differently  charged 
meet  a  storm  ensues.  Hail  is  formed  when  two  masses  of 
air  of  very  different  temperatures  meet  suddenly  ;  hence  hail 
is  rare  in  tropical  countries,  except  near  mountains.  The 
quantity  of  electricity  in  the  earth  and  atmosphere  is  very 
great  ;  it  is  constantly  varying,  and  performs  a  very  impor- 
tant part  in  animal  and  vegetable  life. 

Magnetism,  which  pervades  the  whole  earth,  is  identical 
with  electricity,  although  it  never  comes  naturally  into  evi- 
dence.    The   brilliant  experiments  of  Dr.    Faraday  give   a 
new  view  of  the  magnetic  condition  of  the  substances  on  the 
surface  of  the  globe.     He  found  that  ten  of  the   metals  are 
more  or  less  magnetic,  that  is  to  say,  they  possess  the  power 
of  attracting  either  pole  of  a  magnet,  and  bars  of  these  metals 
freely  suspended  between  the   poles  of  an  electric  magnet 
assume  a  position  in  the  axis  or  line  of  the  magnetic  force, 
but  all  other  substances  whatever   under  the  same  circum- 
stances are  repelled  by  both  poles  of  the  electric  magnet, 
and  take  a  position  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  current  of 
the  magnetic  force.     The  same  effect,  though  less  powerful, 
was  produced  by  a  steel  horse-shoe  magnet.     All  substances 
are  thus  either  magnetic  or  diamagnetic,  except  air  and  the 
gases,  which  are  neutral.     Of  the    metals  10  are   magnetic 
and  16  diamagnetic  :  iron  and  bismuth  are  the  extremes  of 
these  two  conditions  of  matter.     The  inferences  drawn  from 
these  discoveries  by  Dr.  Faraday  are  very  important :  ''When 
we  consider  the  magnetic  condition  of  the  earth,  as  a  whole, 
without  reference   to  its  possible   relation  to  the  sun,  and 
reflect  upon  the  enormous   amount   of  diamagnetic   matter 
which  forms  its  crust,  and  when  we  remember  that  magnetic 
curves  of  a  certain  amount  of  force,  and  universal  in   their 
presence,  are   passing  through  these  matters,  and  keeping 
them  constantly  in  that   state   of  tension,  and  therefore  of 
action,  we  cannot  doubt   but   that   some   great   purpose   of 
utility  to  the  system,  and  to  us  its  inhabitants,  is  thereby 


226  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

fulfilled."  "  It  is  curious  to  see  a  piece  of  wood,  or  leaf, 
or  an  apple,  or  a  bottle  of  water,  repelled  by  a  magnet,  or 
the  leaf  of  a  tree  taking  an  equatorial  position.  Whether 
any  similar  effects  occur  among  the  myriads  of  forms  which 
in  all  parts  of  the  earth's  surface  are  surrounded  by  air,  and 
subject  to  the  action  of  lines  of  magnetic  force,  is  a  question 
which  only  can  be  answered  by  future  observations.  If  the 
sun  have  any  thing  to  do  with  the  magnetism  of  the  globe, 
then  it  is  probable  that  part  of  this  effect  is  due  to  the  action 
of  the  light  that  comes  to  us  from  it,  and  in  that  view  the 
air  seems  most  strikingly  placed  round  our  sphere,  investing 
it  with  a  transparent  diamagnetic,  which  therefore  is  perme- 
able to  his  rays,  and  at  the  same  time  moving  with  great 
velocity  across  them.  Such  conditions  seem  to  suggest  the 
possibility  of  magnetism  being  thence  generated."  Dr. 
Faraday's  discoveries  go  still  farther  ;  having  magnetised 
and  electrified  a  ray  of  light,  he  has  added  another  proof  of 
the  identity  of  these  two  powers.  If  a  ray  of  polarized  light 
be  transmitted  through  certain  transparent  substances  placed 
in  the  line  of  force  connecting  the  opposite  poles  of  an  electro- 
magnet, it  is  so  affected  by  this  power  that  it  becomes  visible 
or  invisible  according  as  the  current  is  flowing  or  not  at  the 
moment,  this  influence  being  more  complete  as  the  ray  of 
light  is  more  nearly  parallel  to  the  line  of  magnetic  force, 
ceasing  if  it  is  perpendicular  to  it.  The  very  same  effect 
was  produced  with  a  steel  horse-shoe  magnet,  though  more 
feeble  in  degree.  Mr.  Christie  has  proved  that  magnetism 
has  an  influence  on  light  direct  from  the  sun.* 

Atmospheric  air  is  principally  a  mixture  of  oxygen  and 
azotic  gas  :  of  100  parts  of  air,  21  are  oxygen  gas,  the  source 
of  life  and  heat  to  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  ;  the 
other  79  parts  are  azote,  or  nitrogen.  Besides  these  chief 
ingredients  the  air  contains  a  very  small  quantity  of  ammonia, 
water  in  an  invisible  state,  and  a  tenth  per  cent,  of  carbonic 
acid  gas.  The  existence  of  the  vegetable  world  depends 
upon  these  constituents. 

*   See  the  7th  edition  of  the  "  Connection  of  Physical  Sciences:  on  Polar- 
ized Light  and  Terrestrial  Magnetism." 


VEGETATION. 


227 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

VEGETATION THE    NOURISHMENT    AND    GROWTH    OF    PLANTS 

CLASSES BOTANICAL    DISTRICTS. 

In  the  present  state  of  the  globe  a  third  part  of  its  surface 
only  is  occupied  by  land,  and  probably  not  more  than  a 
fourth  part  of  that  is  inhabited  by  man,  but  animals  and 
vegetables  have  a  wider  range.  The  greater  part  of  the 
land  is  clothed  with  vegetation  and  inhabited  by  quadrupeds, 
the  air  is  peopled  with  birds  and  insects,  and  the  sea  teems 
with  living  creatures  and  plants.  These  organized  beings 
are  not  scattered  promiscuously,  but  all  classes  of  them  have 
been  originally  placed  in  regions  suited  to  their  respective 
wants.  Many  single  animals  and  plants  are  indigenous  only 
in  determinate  spots,  while  a  thousand  others  might  have 
supported  them  as  well,  and  to  many  of  which  they  have 
been  transported  by  man. 

The  atmosphere  supplies  the  vegetable  creation  with  the 
principal  part  of  its  food  ;  plants  extract  inorganic  substances 
from  the  ground,  which  are  indispensable  to  bring  them  to 
maturity. 

The  black  or  brown  mould,  which  is  so  abundant,  is  the 
produce  of  decayed  vegetables.  When  the  autumnal  leaves, 
the  spoil  of  the  summer,  fall  to  the  ground,  and  their  vitality 
is  gone,  they  enter  into  combination  with  the  oxygen  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  convert  it  into  an  equal  volume  of  carbonic 
acid  gas,  which  consequently  exists  abundantly  in  every  good 
soil,  and  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  food  of  vegetables. 
This  process  is  slow,  and  stops  as  soon  as  the  air  in  the  soil 
is  exhausted  ;  but  the  plough,  by  loosening  the  earth,  and 
permitting  the  atmosphere  to  enter  more  freely ,  and  penetrate 
deeper  into  the  ground,  accelerates  the  decomposition  of  the 
vegetable  matter,  and  consequently  the  formation  of  car- 
bonic acid. 

In  loosening  and  refining  the  mould,  the  common  earth- 
worm is  the  fellow-labourer  with  man  ;  it  eats  earth,  and,  after 
extracting  the  nutritious  part,  ejects  the  refuse,  which  is  the 


228  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

finest  soil,  and  may  be  seen  lying  in  heaps  at  the  mouth  of 
its  burrow.  So  instrumental  is  this  reptile  in  preparing  the 
ground,  that  it  is  said  there  is  not  a  particle  of  the  finer  vege- 
table mould  that  has  not  passed  through  the  intestines  of  a 
worm  ;  thus  the  most  feeble  of  living  creatures  is  employed 
by  Providence  to  accomplish  the  most  important  ends. 

The  food  of  the  vegetable  creation  consists  of  carbon,  hy- 
drogen, nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  all  of  which  plants  obtain  en- 
tirely from  the  atmosphere,  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas, 
water,  and  ammonia.  They  imbibe  these  three  substances, 
and,  after  having  decomposed  them,  they  give  back  the  oxy- 
gen to  the  air,  and  consolidate  the  carbon,  water,  and  nitro- 
gen into  wood,  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit. 

The  vitality  of  plants  is  a  chemical  process,  entirely  due 
to  the  sun's  light;  it  is  most  active  in  clear  sunshine,  feeble 
in  the  shade,  and  nearly  suspended  in  the  night,  when  plants, 
like  animals,  have  rest. 

The  atmosphere  contains  only  one-tenth  per  cent,  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  yet  that  small  quantity  yields  enough  of  car- 
bon to  form  the  solid  mass  of  all  the  magnificent  forests  and 
herbs  that  clothe  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  would  soon  be 
exhausted,  were  it  not  renewed  by  the  breath  of  animals,  by 
volcanoes  and  mineral  springs,  and  by  combustion.  The 
green  parts  of  plants  constantly  imbibe  carbonic  acid  in  the 
day;  they  decompose  it,  assimilate  the  carbon,  and  return 
the  oxygen  pure  to  the  atmosphere.  As  the  chemical  action 
is  feeble  in  the  shade  and  in  gloomy  weather,  only  a  part  of 
the  carbonic  acid  is  decomposed,  and  then  both  oxygen  and 
carbonic  acid  are  given  out  by  the  leaves;  but  during  the 
darkness  of  night  a  chemical  action  of  a  different  character 
takes  place,  and  almost  all  the  carbonic  acid  is  returned  un- 
changed to  the  atmosphere,  together  with  the  moisture  that 
is  evaporated  from  the  leaves  both  night  and  day.  Thus, 
plants  give  out  pure  oxygen  during  the  day,  and  carbonic 
acid  and  water  during  the  night. 

Since  the  vivifying  action  of  the  sun  brings  about  all  these 
changes,  a  superabundance  of  oxygen  is  exhaled  by  the  tro- 
pical vegetation  in  a  clear  unclouded  sky,  where  the  sun's 
rays  are  most  energetic,  and  atmospheric  moisture  most  abun- 
dant. In  the  middle  and  higher  latitudes,  on  the  contrary, 
under  a  more  feeble  sun,  and  a  gloomy  sky  subject  to  rain, 
snow,  and  frequent  eitmospheric  changes,  carbonic  acid  is 


NOURISHMENT    OF    PLANTS.  229 

given  out  in  greater  quantity  by  the  less  vigorous  vegetation. 
But  here,  as  with  regard  to  heat  and  moisture,  equilibrium 
is  restored  by  the  winds:  the  tropical  currents  carry  the  ex- 
cess of  oxygen  along  the  upper  strata  of  the  atmosphere  to 
higher  latitudes,  to  give  breath  and  heat  to  men  and  animals  ; 
while  the  polar  currents,  rushing  along  the  ground,  convey 
the  surplus  carbonic  acid  to  feed  the  tropical  forests  and  jun- 
gles. Harmony  exists  between  the  animal  and  vegetable  crea- 
tions: animals  consume  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  which 
is  restored  by  the  exhalation  of  plants,  while  plants  consume 
the  carbonic  acid  exhaled  by  men  and  animals  :  the  existence 
of  each  is  thus  due  to  their  reciprocal  dependence.  Few  of 
the  great  cosmical  phenomena  have  only  one  end  to  fulfil; 
they  are  the  ministers  of  the  manifold  designs  of  Providence. 

When  a  seed  is  thrown  into  the  ground  the  vital  principle 
is  developed  by  heat  and  moisture,  and  part  of  the  substance 
of  the  seed  is  formed  into  roots,  which  suck  up  water  mixed 
with  carbonic  acid  from  the  soil,  decompose  it,  and  consoli- 
date the  carbon.  In  this  stage  of  their  growth  plants  derive 
their  whole  sustenance  from  the  ground.  As  soon,  however, 
as  the  sugar  and  mucilage  of  the  seed  appear  above  the 
crround,  in  the  form  of  leaves  or  shoots,  they  absorb  and 
decompose  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  atmosphere,  retam 
the  carbon  for  their  food,  and  give  out  the  oxygen  in  the 
day,  and  pure  carbonic  acid  in  the  night.  In  proportion 
as  plants  grow,  they  derive  more  of  their  food  from  the 
air  and  less  from  the  soil,  till  their  fruit  is  ripened,  and 
then  their  whole  nourishment  is  derived  from  the  atmos- 
phere. Trees  are  fed  from  the  air,  after  their  fruit  is  ripe, 
till  their  leaves  fall ;  annuals,  till  they  die.  Air-plants  derive 
all  their  food  from  the  atmosphere.  The  cactus  semper  vivens 
and  the  sedum  semper  vivens,  which  are  attached  to  the 
ground  only  by  a  point,  also  succulent  and  milky-juiced 
plants  which  grow  in  barren  ground,  are  almost  entirely  fed 
from  the  air,  and  even  forests  sometimes  grow  on  land  desti- 
tute of  carbon.  It  is  wonderful  that  so  small  a  quantity  of 
carbonic  acid  as  exists  in  the  air  should  suffice  to  supply  the 
whole  vegetation  of  the  world. 

Plants  absorb  water  from  the  ground  by  their  roots,  they 
decompose  it,  and  the  hydrogen  combines  in  different  pro- 
portions with  their  carbonic  acid  to  form  wood,  sugar,  starch, 
gum,  vegetable  oils,  and  acids.    As  the  green  parts  of  plants 


230  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

combine  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  especially  during  night, 
when  the  functions  of  plants  are  torpid,  it  is  assimilated  on 
the  return  of  daylight,  and  assists  in  forming  oils,  resins,  and 
acids.  The  combination  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  with  the 
leaves,  and  also  with  the  blossom  and  fruit,  during  night,  is 
quite  unconnected  with  the  vital  process,  as  it  is  the  same 
in  dead  plants.  An  acid  exists  in  the  juice  of  every  plant, 
generally  in  combination  with  an  alkali.  It  must  be  observed 
however,  that  these  different  substances  are  produced  at  dif- 
ferent stages  in  the  growth;  for  example,  starch  is  formed  in 
the  roots,  wood,  stalks,  and  seeds,  but  it  is  converted  into 
sugar  as  the  fruit  ripens,  and  the  more  starch  the  sweeter  the 
fruit  becomes.  Most  of  these  new  compounds  are  formed 
between  the  llowering  of  the  plant  and  the  ripening  of  the 
fruit,  and  indeed  they  furnish  the  materials  for  the  flowers, 
fruit,  and  seeds. 

Ammonia,  the  third  organic  constituent  of  plants,  is  the 
last  residue  from  the  decay  and  putrefaction  of  animal  matter. 
It  is  volatilized,  and  rises  into  the  atmosphere,  where  it  exists 
as  a  gas,  but  in  so  small  a  quantity  that  it  cannot  be  detected 
by  chemical  analysis;  yet,  as  it  is  very  soluble  in  water, 
enough  is  brought  to  the  ground  by  rain  to  supply  the  vege- 
table world.  Ammonia  enters  plants  by  their  roots  along 
with  rain-water,  and  is  resolved  within  them  into  its  consti- 
tuent elements,  hydrogen  and  nitrogen.  The  hydrogen  aids 
in  forming  the  wood,  acids,  and  other  substances  beiore  men- 
tioned ;  while  the  nitrogen  enters  into  every  part  of  the  plant, 
and  forms  new  compounds:  it  exists  in  the  blossom  and  fruit 
before  it  is  ripe,  and  in  the  w^ood  as  albumen;  it  also  forms 
gluten,  which  is  the  nutritious  part  of  wheat,  barley,  oats, 
and  all  other  cerealia,  as  well  as  of  esculent  roots,  as  pota- 
toes, beet-root,  &c.  Nitrogen  exists  abundantly  in  peas, 
beans,  and  pulse  of  every  kind  ;  quinine,  morphia,  and  other 
substances,  are  compounds  of  it:  in  short,  a  plant  may  grow 
without  ammonia,  but  it  cannot  produce  seed  or  iruit :  the 
use  of  animal  manure  is  to  supply  plants  with  this  essential 
article  of  their  food. 

Thus  the  decomposition  and  consolidation  of  the  elemen- 
tary food  of  plants,  the  formation  of  the  green  parts,  the  ex- 
halation of  moisture  by  their  leaves,  its  absorption  by  their 
roots,  and  all  the  other  circumstances  of  vegetable  life,  are 
owing  to  the  illuminating  power  of  the  sun.      Heat  can  be 


NOURISHMENT    OF    PLANTS.  231 

supplied  artificially  in  our  northern  climates,  but  it  is  impos- 
sible to  replace  the  dazzling  splendour  of  a  soutliern  sun. 
His  ilhuTiinating  influence  is  displayed  in  a  remarkable  de- 
gree bythecacalia  ficoides:  its  leaves  combine  with  the  oxy- 
gen of  the  atmosphere  during  the  night,  and  are  as  sour  as 
sorrel  in  the  morning;  as  the  sun  rises  they  gradually  lose 
their  oxygen,  and  are  tasteless  by  noon;  and  by  the  con- 
tinued action  of  the  light  they  lose  more  and  more,  till  to- 
wards evening  they  become  bitter. 

The  blue  rays  of  the  solar  spectrum  have  most  effect  on  the 
germination  of  seed;  the  yellow  rays,  which  are  the  most 
luminous,  on  the  growing  plant.  In  spring  and  summer  the 
oxygen  taken  in  by  the  green  leaves  in  the  night  aids  in  the 
formation  of  oils,  acids,  and  the  other  parts  that  contain  it; 
but  as  soon  as  autumn  comes,  the  vitality  or  chemical  action 
of  vegetables  is  weakened,  and  the  oxygen,  no  longer  given 
out  in  the  day,  though  still  taken  in  during  the  night,  be- 
comes a  minister  of  destruction  ;  it  changes  the  colour  of  the 
leaves,  and  consumes  them  when  they  fall.  Nitrogen,  so 
essential  during  the  life  of  plants,  also  resumes  its  chemical 
character  when  they  die,  and  by  its  esca[)e  hastens  their 
decay. 

Although  the  food  which  constitutes  the  mass  of  plants  is 
derived  principally  from  water,  and  the  gases  of  the  atmos- 
phere, fixed  substances  are  also  requisite  for  theij  growth  and 
perfection,  and  these  they  obtain  from  the  earth  by  their  roots. 
The  inorganic  matters  are  the  alkalis,  phosphates,  silica,  sul- 
phur, iron,  and  others. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  vegetable  acids  are 
found  in  the  juices  of  all  the  families  of  plants.  They  gene- 
rally are  in  combination  with  one  or  other  of  the  alkaline 
substances,  as  lime,  soda,  potash,  and  magnesia,  which  are 
as  essential  to  the  existence  of  plants  as  the  carbonic  acid 
by  which  these  acids  are  formed  :  for  example,  vines  have 
potash  ;  plants  used  as  dyes  never  give  vivid  colours  without 
it ;  all  legutninous  plants  require  it,  and  only  grow  naturally 
on  ground  that  contains  it.  None  of  the  corn  tribe  can  pro- 
duce perfect  seeds  unless  they  have  both  potash  and  phos- 
phate of  magnesia  :  nor  can  they  or  any  of  the  grasses  thrive 
without  silica,  which  gives  the  hard  coating  to  straw,  to  the 
beard  of  wheat  and  barley,  to  grass,  canes,  and  bamboos  ; 
it  is  even  found  in  solid  lumps  in  the  hollows  and  joints   of 


232  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

cane,  known  in  India  by  the  name  of  tabashir.  To  bring 
the  cerealia  to  perfection,  it  is  indispensable  that  in  their 
growth  they  should  be  supplied  wath  carbonic  acid  for  the 
stalk,  silica  to  give  it  strength  and  firmness,  and  nitrogen  for 
the  grain. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  found  in  the  ashes  of  all  vegetables, 
and  is  essential  to  many.  Pulse  contain  but  little  of  it,  and 
on  that  account  are  less  nutritious  than  the  cerealia.  I'he 
cruciform  family,  as  cabbages,  turnips,  mustard,  &c.,  must 
have  sulphur  in  addition  to  the  substances  common  to  the 
growth  of  all  plants  :  each  particular  tribe  has  its  own  pe- 
culiarities, and  requires  a  combination  suited  to  it. 

The  ocean  furnishes  some  of  the  matters  found  in  plants  ; 
the  prodigious  quantity  of  sea-water  constantly  evaporated 
carries  with  it  salt  in  a  volatilized  state,  which,  dispersed 
over  the  land  by  the  wind,  supplies  the  ground  with  salt 
and  the  other  ingredients  of  sea-water.  The  inorganic 
matters  which  enter  plants  by  their  roots  are  carried  by  the 
sap  to  every  part  of  the  vegetable  system.  The  roots  imbibe 
all  liquids  piesented  to  them  indiscriminately,  but  they  retain 
only  the  substances  they  require  at  the  various  stages  of  their 
growth,  and  throw  out  such  parts  as  are  useless,  together 
with  the  effete  or  dead  matter  remaining  after  the  nutriment 
has  been  extracted  from  it.  Plants,  like  animals,  may  be 
poisoned,  but  the  power  they  have  of  expelling  deleterious 
substances  by  their  roots  generally  restores  them  to  health. 
The  feculent  matter  injures  the  soil  ;  besides,  after  a  time 
the  ground  is  drained  of  the  inorganic  matter  requisite  for 
any  one  kind  of  plant ;  hence  the  necessity  for  a  change  or 
rotation  of  crops. 

A  quantity  of  heat  is  set  free  and  also  becomes  latent  in 
the  various  transmutations  that  take  place  in  the  interior  of 
plants  ;  so  that  they,  like  the  animal  creation,  have  a  ten- 
dency to  a  temperature  of  their  own,  independent  of  external 
circumstances. 

The  quantity  of  electricity  requisite  to  resolve  a  grain 
weight  of  water  into  its  elementary  oxygen  and  hydrogen  is 
equal  to  the  quantity  of  atmospheric  electricity  which  is 
active  in  a  very  powerful  thunder-storm  ;  hence  some  idea 
may  be  formed  of  the  intense  energy  exerted  by  the  vegetable 
creation  in  the  decomposition  of  the  vast  mass  of  water  and 
other  matters  necessary  for  its  sustenance.      But   there  must 


NOURISHMENT    OF    PLANTS.  233 

be  a  compensation  in  the  consolidation  of  the  vegetable  food, 
otherwise  a  tremendous  quantity  would  be  in  perpetual 
activity.  Possibly  some  part  of  the  atmospheric  electricity 
may  be  ascribed  to  this  cause  ;  but  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  electricity,  excited  by  the  power  of  solar  light,  consti- 
tutes the  chemical  vitality  of  vegetation. 

The  colouring  matter  of  flowers  is  various,  if  we  may 
judge  from  the  effect  which  the  solar  spectrum  has  upon 
their  expressed  juices.  The  colour  is  very  brilliant  on  the 
tops  of  mountains  and  in  the  Arctic  lands.  Possibly  the 
diminished  weight  of  the  air  may  have  some  effect,  for  it 
can  scarcely  be  supposed  that  barometrical  changes  should 
be  entirely  without  influence  on  vegetation. 

The  perfume  of  flowers  and  leaves  is  owing  to  a  volatile 
oil,  which  is  often  carried  by  the  air  to  a  great  distance  :  in 
hot  climates  it  is  most  powerful  in  the  morning  and  evening. 
The  odour  of  the  humeria  has  been  perceived  at  the  distance 
of  three  miles  from  the  coast  of  South  America,  a  species  of 
tetracera  sends  its  perfume  as  far  from  the  island  of  Cuba, 
and  the  aroma  of  the  Spice  Islands  is  wafted  out  to  sea. 
The  variety  of  perfumes  is  infinite,  and  shows  the  innume- 
rable combinations  of  which  a  few  simple  substances  are 
capable,  and  the  extreme  minuteness  of  the  particles  of 
matter. 

In  northern  and  mean  latitudes  winter  is  a  time  of  com- 
plete rest  to  the  vegetable  world,  and  in  tropical  climates 
the  vigour  of  vegetation  is  suspended  during  the  dry,  hot 
season,  to  be  resumed  at  the  return  of  the  periodical  rains. 
Almost  all  plants  sleep  during  the  night  ;  some  show  it  in 
their  leaves,  others  in  their  blossom.  The  mimosa  tribe  not 
only  close  their  leaves  at  night,  but  their  foot-stalks  droop  ; 
in  a  clover-field  not  a  leaf  opens  till  after  sunrise.  The 
common  daisy  is  a  familiar  instance  of  a  sleeping  flower ;  it 
shuts  up  its  blossom  in  the  evening,  and  opens  its  white  and 
crimson-tipped  star,  the  "  day's  eye,"  to  meet  the  early 
beams  of  the  morning  sun  ;  and  then  also  "  winking  mary- 
buds  begin  to  ope  their  golden  eyes."  The  crocus,  tulip, 
convolvulus,  and  many  others  close  their  blossoms  at  dif- 
ferent hours  towards  evening,  some  to  open  them  again, 
others  never.  The  condrille  of  the  walls  opens  at  eight  in 
the  morning  and  closes  for  ever  at  four  in  the  afternoon. 
Some  plants  seem  to  be  wide  awake  all  night,  and  to  give 
20* 


234  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

out  their  perfume  then  only,  or  at  nightfall.  Many  of  the 
jessamines  are  most  fragrant  during  the  twilight:  the  olea 
fragrans,  the  daphne  adorata,  and  the  night-stock  reserve 
their  sweetness  for  the  midnight  hour,  and  the  night-flowering 
sirius  turns  night  into  day.  It  begins  to  expand  its  magnifi- 
cent sweet-scented  blossom  in  the  twilight,  it  is  full  blown 
at  midnight,  and  closes,  never  to  open  again,  with  the  dawn 
of  day  : — these  are  "  the  bats  and  owls  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom." 

Many  plants  brought  from  warm  to  temperate  climates 
have  become  habituated  to  their  new  situation,  and  flourish 
as  if  they  were  natives  of  the  soil  ;  such  as  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  flower  and  rest  at  particular  seasons  change  their 
habits  by  degrees,  and  adapt  themselves  to  the  seasons  of 
the  country  that  has  adopted  them.  It  is  much  more  diffi- 
cult to  transfer  Alpine  plants  to  the  plains.  Whether  from 
a  change  of  atmospheric  pressure  or  mean  temperature,  all 
attempts  to  cultivate  them  at  a  lower  level  generally  fail  :  it 
is  much  easier  to  accustom  a  plant  of  the  plains  to  a  higher 
situation. 

Plants  are  propagated  by  seeds,  offsets,  cuttings,  and  buds  ; 
hence  they,  but  more  especially  trees,  have  myriads  of  seats 
of  life,  a  congeries  of  vital  systems  acting  in  concert,  but 
independently  of  each  other,  every  one  of  which  might  be- 
come a  new  plant.  In  this  respect  the  fir  and  pine  tribe  are 
inferior  to  deciduous  trees  which  lose  their  leaves  annually, 
because  they  are  not  easily  propagated  except  by  seeds.  It 
has  been  remarked  that  all  plants  that  are  propagated  by 
buds  from  a  common  parent  stock  have  the  same  duration 
of  life  :  this  has  been  noticed  particularly  with  regard  to 
some  species  of  apple-trees  in  England. 

A  certain  series  of  transitions  take  place  throughout  the 
lives  of  plants,  each  part  being  transformed  and  passing  into 
another  ;  a  law  that  was  first  observed  by  the  illustrious  poet 
Giithe.  For  example  the  embryo  leaves  pass  into  common 
leaves,  these  into  bracteae,  the  bractese  into  sepals,  the  sepals 
into  petals,  which  are  transformed  into  stamens  and  anthers, 
and  these  again  pass  into  ovaries  with  their  styles  and  stig- 
mas, that  are  to  become  the  fruit  and  ultimately  the  seed  of 
a  new  plant. 

Plants  are  naturally  divided   into  three  classes,  diflfering 
materially  in  organization  : — The  cryptogamia,  whose  flowers 


BOTANICAL    CLASSES.  235 

and  seeds  are  either  too  minute  to  be  easily  visible,  or  are 
hidden  in  some  part  of  the  plant,  as  in  fungi,  mosses,  ferns, 
and    lichens,   which   are  of  the  least  perfect   organization. 
Next   to  these  are  the   endogenous  plants,  which   in   their 
growth  increase  from  the  interior,  as  grasses  and  palms.     In 
these  the  fresh  leaves  spring  from  the  centre,  and  the  foot- 
stalks of  the  old  leaves  form  the  outside  of  the  stem :  plants 
of  this  class  are  also  known  as  monocotyledons,  because  they 
have  but  one  seed-lobe  which  forms  one  little  leaf  in  their 
embryo  state.     The  flowers  and  fruit  of  this  class  are  gene- 
rally referable  to  some  law  in  which  the  number  three  pre- 
vails, as,  for  example,  the  petals   and  other  parts  are  three 
in    number.     The  exogenous  plants  form   the   third   class, 
which  is  the  most  perfect  in  its  organization  and  by  much 
the   most  numerous,  including   the  trees  of  the  forest   and 
most  of  the  flowering  shrubs  and  herbs.     They  increase  by 
coatings  from  without,  as  trees,  where  the  growth  of  each 
year  forms  a  concentric  circle  of  wood  round  the  pith  or 
centre  of  the  stem  ;  these  are  also  known  as  dicotyledonous 
plants,  because  their  seeds  have  two  lobes,  which   in  their 
embryo  state  appear  first  in  two  little  leaves  above  ground, 
like  most  of  the  European  species.     The  parts  of  the  flowers 
and  fruit  of  this  class  generally  have  some   relation   to  the 
number  five. 

The  three  botanical  classes  are  distributed  in  very  different 
proportions  in  different  zones  :  endogenous  plants,  such  as 
grasses  and  palms,  are  much  more  rare  than  the  exogenous 
class.  Between  the  tropics  there  are  four  of  the  latter  to  one 
of  the  grass  or  palm  tribes,  in  the  temperate  zones  six  to  one, 
and  in  the  polar  regions  only  two  to  one,  because  mosses  and 
lichens  are  most  abundant  in  the  high  latitudes,  where  exo- 
genous plants  are  comparatively  rare.  In  the  temperate  zones 
one-sixth  of  the  plants  are  annuals,  omitting  the  cryptoga- 
mia  ;  in  the  torrid  zone  scarcely  one  plant  in  twenty  is  an- 
nual, and  in  the  polar  regions  only  one  in  thirty.  The  num- 
ber of  ligneous  vegetables  increases  on  approaching  the  equa- 
tor, yet  in  North  America  there  are  T20  diflferent  species  of 
forest-trees,  whereas  in  the  same  latitudes  in  Europe  there 
are  only  34.  The  social  plants,  grasses,  heaths,  furze,  broom, 
daisies,  &c.,  which  cover  large  tracts,  are  rare  between  the 


236  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

tropics,  except  on  the  mountains  and  table-lands  and  on  the 
llanos  of  equatorial  America. 

Equinoctial  America  has  a  more  extensive  and  richer  vege- 
tation than  any  other  part  of  the  world  ;  Europe  has  not  above 
half  the  number  of  indigenous  species  of  plants;  Asia,  with 
its  islands,  has  somewhat  less  than  Europe  ;  Australia,  with 
its  islands  in  the  Pacific,  still  less  ;  and  there  are  fewer  vege- 
table productions  in  Africa  than  in  any  part  of  the  globe  of 
the  same  extent. 

Since  the  constitution  of  the  atmosphere  is  very  much  the 
same  everywhere,  vegetation  depends  principally  on  the  sun's 
light,  moisture,  and  the  mean  annual  temperature,  and  it  is 
also  in  some  degree  regulated  by  the  heat  of  summer  in  the 
temperate  zones.  Between  the  tropics,  wherever  rain  does 
not  fall,  the  soil  is  burnt  up  and  is  as  unfruitful  as  that  ex- 
posed to  the  utmost  rigour  of  frost ;  but  where  moisture  is 
combined  with  heat  and  light^.  the  luxuriance  of  the  vegeta- 
tion is  beyond  description.  The  abundance  and  violence  of 
the  periodical  rains  combine  with  the  intense  light  and  heat 
to  render  the  tropical  forests  and  jungles  almost  impervious 
from  the  rankness  of  the  vegetation.  This  exuberance  gra- 
dually decreases  with  the  distance  from  the  equator;  it  also 
diminishes  progressively  as  the  height  above  the  level  of  the 
sea  increases,  so  that  each  height  has  a  corresponding  parallel 
latitude  where  the  climates  and  floras  are  similar,  till  the 
perpetual  snow  on  the  mountain-tops  and  its  counterpart  in 
the  polar  regions  have  a  vegetation  that  scarcely  rises  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  Hence  in  ascending  the  Hima- 
laya or  Andes  from  the  luxuriant  plains  of  the  Ganges  or 
Amazons,  changes  take  place  in  the  vegetation  analogous  to 
what  a  traveller  would  meet  with  in  a  journey  from  the  equa- 
tor to  the  poles.  This  law  of  decrease,  though  perfectly  re- 
gular over  a  wide  extent,  is  perpetually  interfered  with  by 
local  climate  and  soil.  From  the  combination  of  various 
causes,  as  the  distribution  of  land  and  water,  their  different 
powders  of  absorption  and  radiation,  together  with  the  form, 
texture,  and  clothing  of  the  land,  and  the  prevailing  wnnds, 
it  is  found  that  the  isothermal  lines,  or  imaginary  lines  drawn 
through  places  on  the  surface  of  the  globe  which  have  the 
same  mean  annual  temperature,  do  not  correspond  with  the 
parallels  of  latitude.  Thus  in  North  America  the  climate  is 
much  colder  than  in  the  corresponding  European  latitudes. 


BOTANICAL    DISTRICTS. 


237 


Quebec  is  in  the  latitude  of  Paris,  and  the  country  is  covered 
with  deep  snow  four  or  five  months  in  the  year,  and  it  has 
occurred  that  a  summer  has  passed  there  in  which  not  more 
than  sixty  days  have  been  free  from  frost. 

In  the  southern  hemisphere,  beyond  the  34th  parallel,  the 
summers  are  colder  and  the  winters  milder  than  in  corres- 
ponding latitudes  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  Neither  does 
the  temperature  of  mountains  vary  exactly  with  their  height 
above  the  sea;  other  causes,  as  prevailing  winds,  difference 
of  radiation,  and  geological  structure,  concur  inproducing  irre- 
gularities which  have  a  powerful  effect  on  the  vegetable  world. 

However,  no  similarity  of  existing  circumstances  can  ac- 
count for  whole  families  of  plants  being  confined  to  one  par- 
ticular country,  or  even  to  a  very  limited  district,  which,  as 
far  as  we  can  judge,  might  have  grown  equally  well  on  many 
others.  Latitude,  elevation,  soil,  and  climate,  are  but  se- 
condary causes  in  the  distribution  of  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
and  are  totally  inadequate  to  explain  why  there  are  nume- 
rous distinct  botanical  districts  in  the  continents  and  islands, 
each  of  which  has  its  own  vegetation,  whose  limits  are  most 
decided  when  they  are  separated  by  the  ocean,  mountain- 
chains,  sandy  deserts,  salt-plains,  or  internal  seas.  Each  of 
these  districts  is  the  focus  of  families  and  genera,  some  of 
which  are  found  nowhere  else,  and  some  are  common  toothers, 
but,  with  a  very  few  remarkable  exceptions,  the  species  of 
plants  in  each  are  entirely  different  or  representative.  This 
does  not  depend  upon  the  difference  in  latitude,  for  the  vege- 
tation of  the  United  States  of  North  America  is  totally  unlike 
that  of  Europe  under  the  same  isothermal  lines,  and  even  be- 
tween the  tropics  the  greatest  dissimilarity  often  prevails 
under  different  degrees  of  longitude:  consequently  the  cause 
of  this  partial  distribution  of  plants,  and  that  of  animals  also, 
which  is  according  to  the  same  law,  must  be  looked  for  in 
those  early  geological  periods  when  the  earth  first  began  to 
be  tenanted  by  the  present  races  of  organised  beings. 

As  the  land  rose  at  different  periods  above  the  ocean,  each 
part,  as  it  emerged  from  the  waves,  had  probably  been  clothed 
with  vegetation,  and  peopled  with  animals,  suited  to  its  po- 
sition with  regard  to  the  equator,  and  to  the  climate  and  con- 
dition of  the  globe  then  being.  And  as  the  conditions  and 
climate  were  different  at  each  succeeding  geological  epoch, 
so  each  portion  of  the  land,  as  it  rose,  would  be  characterized 


238  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

by  its  own  vegetation  and  animals,  and  thus  at  last  there 
would  be  many  centres  of  creation,  as  at  this  day,  all  differ- 
ing more  or  less  from  one  another,  and  hence  alpine  floras 
must  be  of  older  date  than  those  in  the  plains.  The  vegeta- 
tion and  faunas  of  those  lands  that  differed  most  in  age  and 
place  would  be  most  dissimilar,  while  the  plants  and  animals 
of  such  as  were  not  far  removed  from  one  another  in  time 
and  place  would  have  correlative  forms  or  family  likenesses, 
yet  each  would  form  a  distincl  province.  Thus,  in  oppo.site 
hemispheres,  and  everywhere  at  great  distances,  but  under 
like  circumstances,  the  species  are  representatives  of  one 
another,  rarely  identical ;  when  however,  the  conditions  which 
suit  certain  species  are  continuous,  identical  species  are  found 
throughout,  either  by  original  creation  or  by  migration.  The 
older  forms  ma_y  have  been  modified  to  a  certain  extent  by 
the  succeeding  conditions  of  the  globe,  but  they  never  could 
have  been  changed,  since  immutability  of  species  is  a  primor- 
dial law  of  nature.  Neither  external  circumstances,  time,  nor 
human  art,  can  change  one  species  into  another,  though  each 
to  a  certain  extent  is  capable  of  accommodating  itself  to  a 
change  of  external  circumstances,  so  as  to  produce  varieties 
.even  transmissible  to  their  offspring. 

The  flora  of  Cashmere  and  the  higher  parts  of  the  Himalaya 
mountains  is  similar  to  that  of  southern  Europe,  yet  the  spe- 
cies are  representative,  not  identical.  In  the  plains  of  Tar- 
tary,  where  from  their  elevation  the  degree  of  cold  is  not  less 
than  in  the  wastes  of  Siberia,  the  vegetation  of  one  might  be 
mistaken  for  that  of  the  other ;  the  gooseberry,  currant,  wil- 
low, rhubarb,  and  in  some  places  the  oak,  hazel,  cypress, 
poplar,  and  birch,  grow  in  both,  but  they  are  of  different 
species.  The  flora  near  the  snow-line  on  the  lofty  moun- 
tains of  Europe,  and  lower  down,  has  also  a  perfect  family 
likeness  to  that  in  hicrh  northern  latitudes.  In  like  manner 
many  plants  on  the  higher  parts  of  the  Chilian  Andes  are 
similar,  and  even  identical,  with  those  in  Terra  del  Fuego; 
nay,  the  Arctic  flora  has  a  certain  resemblance  to  that  of  the 
Antarctic  regions,  and  even  occasional  identity  of  species. 
These  remarkable  coincidences  maybe  accounted  for  by  the 
different  places  having  been  at  an  early  geological  period  at 
the  same  level  above  the  ocean,  and  that  they  continue  to 
retain  part  of  their  original  flora  after  their  relative  positions 
have  been  changed.     The  tops  of  the  Chilian  Andes  were 


BOTANICAL    DISTRICTS.  239 

probably  on  a  level  with  Terra  del  Fuego,  when  both  were 
covered  with  the  same  vegetation,  and  in  the  same  manner 
the  lofty  plains  of  Tartary  may  have  acquired  their  vegetation 
when  they  were  on  the  level  of  southern  Siberia. 

In  the  many  vicissitudes  the  surface  of  the  globe  has  un- 
dergone, continents  formed  at  one  period  were  broken  up  at 
another  into  islands  and  detached  masses  by  inroads  of  the 
sea  and  other  causes.  Now  Professor  E.  Forbes  has  shown 
that  some  of  the  primary  floras  and  faunas  have  spread  widely 
froQi  their  original  centres  over  large  portions  of  the  conti- 
nents beibre  the  land  was  broken  up  into  the  form  it  now  has, 
and  thus  accounts  for  the  similarity  and  sometimes  identity 
of  the  plants  and  animals  of  regions  now  separated  by  seas, 
— as,  tor  example,  islands,  which  generally  partake  of  the 
vegetation  and  fauna  of  the  contments  adjacent  to  them. 
Taking  lor  granted  the  original  creation  of  specific  centres 
of  plants  and  animals,  Professor  E.  Forbes  has  clearly  proved 
that  "the  specific  identity,  to  any  extent,  of  the  tiora  and 
fauna  of  one  area,  with  those  of  another,  depends  on  both 
areas  forming,  or  having  formed,  part  of  the  same  specific 
centre,  or  on  their  having  derived  their  animal  and  vegetable 
population  by  transmission,  through  migration,  over  continu- 
ous or  closely  contiguous  land,  aided,  in  the  case  of  Alpine 
floras,  by  transportation  on  floating  masses  of  ice." 

By  the  preceding  hiws  the  limited  provinces  and  disper- 
sion of  animal  and  vegetable  life  are  explained,  but  the 
existence  of  single  species  in  regions  very  far  apart  has  not 
yet  been  accounted  for. 

Very  few  of  the  exogenous  or  dicotyledonous  plants  are 
common  to  two  or  more  countries  far  apart:  among  the  few, 
the  samolus  valerandi,  a  common  English  plant,  is  a  native 
of  Australia;  the  potentilla  tridendata,  not  found  in  Europe, 
except  on  one  hill  in  Augusshire,  is  common  on  the  moun- 
tains of  North  America  ;  and  in  the  Falkland  Islands  there 
are  more  than  30  flowering  plants  identical  with  those  in 
Great  Britain. 

There  are  many  more  instances  of  wide  diffusion  among 
the  endogenous  plants,  especially  grasses :  the  jihleum 
alpinum  of  Switzerland  grows  without  the  smallest  varia- 
tion at  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  and  Mr.  Bunbury  met  with 
the  European  quaking  grasses  in  the  interior  of  the  country 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  but  the  cellular  or  cryptogamous 


240  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

class  is  most  widely  diffused — plants  not  susceptible  of  cul- 
tivation, of  little  use  to  man,  and  of  all  others  the  most  diffi- 
cult to  transport.  The  sticta  aurata,  a  Cornish  lichen,  is  a 
native  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  St.  Helena,  the  West 
Indian  islands,  and  Brazil ;  the  trichomanes  brevisetum 
grows  scarcely  anywhere  but  in  Yorkshire  and  iVIadeira : 
and  our  eminent  botanist,  Mr.  Brown,  found  38  British 
lichens,  and  28  British  mosses  in  New  Holland,  yet  in  no 
two  parts  of  the  world  is  the  vegetation  more  dissimilar. 

Some  plants  are  concentrated  in  particular  spots :  the 
cinchona,  which  furnishes  the  Peruvian  bark,  grows  only  on 
the  Andes  of  Loxa  and  Venezuela  ;  the  cedar  of  Lebanon  is 
indigenous  on  that  celebrated  mountain  only  ;  and  the  disa 
grandiflora  is  limited  to  a  very  small  spot  on  the  top  of  the 
table-mountain  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  but  whether 
these  are  remnants  whose  kindred  have  perished  by  a  change 
of  physical  circumstances,  or  centres  only  beginning  to  spread, 
it  is  impossible  to  say. 


CHAPTER  XXn. 


VEGETATION      OF     THE      GREAT     CONTINENT OF     THE     ARCTIC 

ISLANDS AND      OF     THE     ARCTIC     AND    NORTH     TEMPERATE 

REGIONS    OF    EUROPE    AND    ASIA. 

The  southern  limit  of  the  polar  flora,  on  the  great  continent, 
lies  mostly  within  the  Arctic  circle,  but  stretches  along  the 
tops  of  the  Scandinavian  mountains,  and  reappears  in  the 
high  lands  of  Scotland,  Cumberland,  and  Ireland,  on  the 
summits  of  the  Pyrenees,  Alps,  and  other  mountains  in 
southern  Europe,  as  well  as  on  the  table-land  of  eastern 
Asia,  and  on  the  high  ridges  of  the  Himalaya. 

The  great  European  plain  to  the  Ural  Mountains,  as  well 
as  the  low-lands  of  England  and  Ireland,  were  atone  period 
covered  by  a  small  sea  full  of  floating  ice  and  icebergs,  which 
made  the  climate  much  colder  than  it  now  is.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  that  period  the  Scandinavian  range,  the  other  conti- 
nental mountains,  and  those  in  Britain  and  Ireland,  were 
islands  of  no  great  elevation,  and  were  then  clothed  with  the 


VEGETATION  OF  THE  GREAT  CONTINENT.       241 

Arctic  flora,  or  a  representative  of  it,  which  they  still  retain 
now  that  they  form  the  tops  of  the  mountain-chains,  and  at 
that  time  both  plants  and  animals  were  conveyed  from  one 
country  to  another  by  the  floating  ice.  It  is  even  probable, 
from  the  relations  of  the  fauna  and  flora,  that  Greenland, 
Iceland,  and  the  very  high  European  latitudes,  are  the  residue 
of  a  great  northern  land  which  had  sunk  down  at  the  close 
of  the  glacial  period,  for  there  were  many  vicissitudes  of 
level  during  that  epoch.  At  all  events  it  may  be  presumed 
that  the  elevation  of  the  Arctic  regions  of  both  continents, 
if  not  contemporaneous,  was  probably  not  far  removed  in 
time.  Similarity  of  circumstances  had  extended  throughout 
the  whole  Arctic  regions,  since  there  is  a  remarkable  simi- 
larity and  occasional  identity  of  species  of  plants  and  animals 
in  the  high  latituties  of  both  continents,  which  is  continued 
along  the  tops  of  their  mountain-chains,  even  in  the  temperate 
zones  ;  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  relations  be- 
tween the  faunas  and  floras  of  Boreal  America,  Asia,  and 
Europe,  must  have  been  established  towards  the  clo:?e  of 
the  glacial  period. 

The  flora  of  Iceland  approaches  nearer  to  the  British  than 
to  that  of  any  other  country,  yet  only  one  in  four  of  the 
Icelandic  plants  are  known  in  our  islands.  There  are  870 
species  in  Iceland,  of  which  more  than  half  are  flower-bear- 
ing: this  is  a  greater  proportion  than  is  found  in  Scotland, 
but  there  are  only  32  of  woody  texture.  This  flora  is  scat- 
tered in  groups  according  as  the  plants  like  a  dry,  marshy, 
volcanic,  or  marine  soil.  -Many  grow  to  an  unnatural  size 
close  to  the  hot-springs  ;  thyme  grows  in  cracks  of  the  basin 
of  the  Great  Geyser,  where  every  other  plant  is  petrified  ; 
and  a  species  of  chara  flourishes  and  bears  seed  in  a  spring 
hot  enough  to  boil  an  egg.  The  Icelanders  make  bread 
from  metur,  a  species  of  wild  corn,  and  also  from  the  bulbous 
root  of  polyganum  viviparum  ;  their  greatest  delicacy  is  the 
angelica  archangelica ;  Iceland  moss,  used  in  medicine,  is 
an  article  of  commerce.  There  are  583  species  in  the  Feroe 
Islands,  of  which  270  are  flowering  plants  :  many  thrive 
there  that  cannot  bear  the  cold  of  Iceland.* 

*   Trevelyan's  Travels  in  Iceland  and  the  Feroe  Islands. 

21 


242  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


ARCTIC  FLORA  OF  THE  GREAT  CONTINENT. 

In  the  most  northern  parts  of  the  Arctic  lands  the  year 
is  divided  into  one  long  intensely  cold  night  and  one  bright 
and  fervid  day,  which  quickly  brings  to  maturity  the  scanty 
vegetation.  Within  the  limit  of  perpetual  congelation  the 
palmetto  invalis,  a  very  minute  red  or  orange-coloured  plant, 
finds  nourishment  on  the  surface  of  the  snow,  the  first  dawn 
of  vegetable  life  :  it  is  also  found  colouring  large  patches  of 
snow  on  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees. 

Lichens  are  the  first  vegetables  that  appear  at  the  limits 
of  the  snow-line,  whether  in  high  latitudes  or  mountain-tops, 
and  they  are  the  first  vegetation  that  takes  possession  of 
volcanic  lavas  and  new  islands,  where  they  prepare  soil  for 
plants  of  a  higher  order :  they  grow  on  rocks,  stones,  and 
trees,  in  fact  on  any  thing  that  afibrds  them  moisture.  More 
than  2400  species  are  already  known  :  no  plants  are  more 
widely  diffused,  and  none  afford  a  more  striking  instance  of 
the  arbitrary  location  of  species,  as  they  are  of  so  little  direct 
use  to  man  that  they  could  not  have  been  disseminated  by 
his  agency.  The  same  kinds  prevail  throughout  the  Arctic 
regions,  and  the  species  common  to  both  hemispheres  are 
very  numerous.  Some  lichens  produce  brilliant  red,  orange, 
and  brown  dyes  ;  and  the  tripe  de  roche,  a  species  of  gyro- 
phora,  is  a  miserable  substitute  for  food,  as  our  intrepid 
countryman  Sir  John  Franklin  and  his  brave  companions 
experienced  in  their  perilous  Arctic  journey. 

Mosses  follow  lichens  on  newly-formed  soil,  and  they  are 
found  everywhere  throughout  the  world  in  damp  situations, 
but  in  greatest  abundance  in  temperate  climates  :  800  species 
are  known,  of  which  a  great  part  inhabit  the  Arctic  regions, 
constituting  a  large  portion  of  the  vegetation. 

In  Asiatic  Siberia  north  of  the  60th  parallel  of  latitude  the 
ground  is  perpetually  frozen  at  a  very  small  depth  below  the 
surface  :  a  temperature  of  70°  below  zero  of  Fahrenheit  is  not 
uncommon,  and  in  some  instances  the  cold  has  been  120° 
below  zero.  Then  it  is  fatal  to  animal  life,  especially  if  ac- 
companied by  wind.  In  some  places  trees  grow  and  corn 
ripens  even  at  70°  of  north  latitude  ;  but  in  the  most  northern 
parts  boundless  swamps,  varied  by  lakes  both  of  salt  and 
fresh  water,  cover  wide  portions  of  this   desolate   country, 


ARCTIC    FLORA.  243 

which  is  buried  under  snow  nine  or  ten  months  in  the  year. 
As  soon  as  the  snow  is  melted  by  the  returning  sun,  these 
extensive  morasses  are  covered  with  coarse  grass  and  rushes, 
while  mosses  and  lichens  mixed  with  dwarf  willows  clothe 
the  plains  ;  saline  plants  abound,  and  whole  districts  produce 
diotis  ceratoides. 

In  Nova  Zembla  and  other  places  in  the  far  north  the 
vegetation  is  so  stunted  that  it  barely  covers  the  ground,  but 
a  much  greater  variety  of  minute  plants  of  great  beauty  are 
crowded  together  there  in  a  small  space  than  in  the  Alpine 
regions  of  Europe  where  the  same  genera  grow^  This  arises 
from  the  weakness  of  the  vegetation  ;  for  in  the  Swiss  Alps 
the  same  plant  frequently  occupies  a  large  space  excluding 
every  other,  as  the  dark-blue  gentian,  the  violet-coloured 
pansy,  the  pink  and  yellow  stone-crops.  In  the  remote 
north,  on  the  contrary,  where  vitality  is  comparatively  fee- 
ble and  the  seeds  do  not  ripen,  thirty  different  species  may 
be  seen  crowded  together  in  a  brilliant  mass,  no  one  having 
strength  to  overcome  the  rest.  In  such  frozen  climates  plants 
may  be  said  to  live  between  the  air  and  the  earth,  for  they 
scarcely  rise  above  the  soil,  and  their  roots  creep  along  the 
surface,  not  having  power  to  enter  it.  All  the  woody  plants, 
as  the  betula  lanata,  the  articulated  willow,  andromeda  tetra- 
gona,  with  a  few^  berry -bearing  shrubs,  trail  along  the  ground, 
never  rising  more  than  an  inch  or  two  above  it.  The  salix 
lanata,  the  giant  of  these  boreal  forests,  never  grows  more 
than  five  inches  above  the  surface,  while  its  stem,  ten  or 
twelve  feet  long,  lies  hidden  among  the  moss,  owing  shelter 
to  its  lowly  neighbour. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  the  vegetation  of  the  Arctic 
regions  is  the  predominance  of  perennial  and  cryptogamous 
plants,  and  also  of  the  sameness  of  its  nature,  but  more  to 
the  south,  where  night  begins  to  alternate  with  day,  a  dif- 
ference of  species  appears  in  longitude  as  well  as  in  latitude. 
A  beautiful  flora  of  vivid  colours  adorns  these  latitudes  both 
in  Europe  and  Asia  during  their  brief  but  bright  and  ardent 
summer,  consisting  of  potentillas,  gentians,  chickweeds,  saxi- 
frages, sedums,  ranunculi,  spiraeas,  drabas,  artemisias,  clay- 
tonias,  and  many  more.  Such  is  the  power  of  the  sun  and 
the  consequent  rapidity  of  vegetation,  that  these  plants  spring 
up,  blossom,  ripen  their  seed,  and  die,  in  six  weeks  :  in  a 
lower  latitude  woody  plants  follow  these,  as  berry-bearing 


244  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

shrubs,  the  glaucous  kalmia,  the  trailing  azalia,  and  rhodo- 
dendrons. The  Siberian  flora  differs  from  that  in  the  same 
European  latitudes  by  the  North  American  genera  phlox, 
mitella,  claytonia,  and  the  predominance  of  asters,  solidago, 
spiraea,  milk-vetches,  worm-wood  and  the  saline  plants, 
goosefoot,  and  saltw^orts. 

Social  plants  abound  in  many  parts  of  the  northern  coun- 
tries, as  grass,  heath,  furze,  and  broom  :  the  steppes  are  an 
example  of  this  on  a  very  extensive  scale.  Both  in  Europe 
and  Asia  they  are  subject  to  a  rigorous  winter,  with  deep 
snow  and  chilling  blasts  of  wind  ;  and  as  the  soil  generally 
consists  of  a  coating  of  vegetable  mould  over  clay,  no  plants 
with  deep  roots  thrive  upon  them  ;  hence  the  steppes  are 
destitute  of  trees,  and  even  bushes  are  rare  except  in  ravines; 
the  grass  is  thin,  but  nourishing.  Hyacinths  and  some  other 
bulbs,  mignionette,  asparagus,  liquorice,  and  wormwood, 
grow  in  the  European  steppes ;  the  two  last  are  peculiarly  cha- 
racteristic. The  nymphsea  nilumba  grows  in  one  spot  five 
miles  from  the  town  of  Astracan,  and  nowhere  else  in  the 
wide  domains  of  Russia  :  the  leaves  of  this  beautiful  aquatic 
plant  are  often  tw^o  feet  broad,  and  its  rose-coloured  blos- 
soms are  very  fragrant.  It  is  also  native  in  India  and  Tibet, 
where  it  is  held  sacred,  as  it  was  formerly  in  Egypt,  where 
it  is  said  to  be  extinct  :  it  is  one  of  the  many  instances  of  a 
plant  growing  in  countries  far  apart. 

Each  steppe  in  Siberia  has  its  own  peculiar  plants :  the 
peplis  and  camphorasina  are  peculiar  to  the  steppe  of  the 
Irtish,  and  the  amaryllis  tartarica  abounds  in  the  meadows 
of  eastern  Siberia,  where  the  vegetation  bears  a  great  ana- 
logy to  that  of  north-western  America  :  several  genera  and 
species  are  common  to  both. 

Half  the  plants  found  by  Wormskiold  in  Karatschatka  are 
European,  with  the  exception  of  eight  or  ten,  which  are 
American.  Few  European  trees  grow  in  Asiatic  Siberia, 
notwithstanding  the  similarity  of  climate,  and  most  of  them 
disappear  towards  the  rivers  Tobol  and  Irtish. 

In  Lapland  and  in  the  high  latitudes  of  Russia  large  tracts 
are  covered  with  birch-trees,  but  the  pine  and  fir  tribe  are 
the  principal  inhabitants  of  the  north.  Prodigious  forests  of 
these  are  spread  over  the  mountains  of  Norway  and  Sweden, 
and  in  European  Russia  200,000,000  acres  are  clothed  with 
these  conifers   alone,  or  occasionally  mixed  with  willows, 


ARCTIC    FLORA.  245 

poplars,  and  alders.  Although  soils  of  pure  sand  and  lime 
are  absolutely  barren,  yet  they  generally  contain  enough  of 
alkali  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  fir  and  pine  tribes,  which 
require  ten  times  less  than  oaks  and  other  deciduous  trees. 

The  Siberian  steppes  are  bounded  on  the  south  by  great 
forests  of  pine,  birch,  and  willow:  poplars,  elms,  and  Tar- 
tarian maple  overhang  the  upper  courses  of  the  noble  rivers 
which  flow  from  the  mountains  to  the  Frozen  Ocean,  and  on 
the  banks  of  the  Yenessei  the  pinus  cimbra,  or  Siberian 
pine,  with  edible  fruit,  grows  120  feet  high.  The  Altai  are 
covered  nearly  to  their  summit  with  similar  forests,  but  on 
their  greatest  heights  the  stunted  larch  crawls  on  the  ground, 
and  the  flora  is  like  that  of  northern  Siberia:  round  the  lake 
Baikal  the  pinus  cimbra  grows  nearly  to  the  snow-line. 

Forests  of  black  birch  are  peculiar  to  Da-Ouria,  where 
there  are  also  apricot  and  apple  trees,  and  rhododendrons, 
of  which  a  species  grows  in  thickets  on  the  hills,  with  yel- 
low blossoms.  Here  and  everywhere  else  throughout  this 
country  are  found  all  the  species  of  caragana,  a  genus  en- 
tirely Siberian.  Each  terrace  of  the  mountains  and  each 
steppe  on  the  plains  has  its  peculiar  plants,  as  well  as  some 
common  to  all  :  perennial  plants  are  more  numerous  than 
annuals. 

If  temperature  and  climate  depended  upon  latitude  alone, 
all  Asia  between  the  50th  and  30th  parallels  would  have  a 
mild  climate  ;  but  that  is  far  from  being  the  case,  on  account 
of  the  structure  of  the  continent,  which  consists  of  the  high- 
est table-lands  and  the  lowest  plains  on  the  globe. 

The  table-land  of  Tibet,  where  it  is  not  cultivated,  has 
the  character  of  great  sterility,  and  the  climate  is  as  unpro- 
pitious  as  the  soil:  frost,  snow,  and  sleet  begin  early  in 
September,  and  continue  with  little  interruption  till  May ; 
snow,  indeed,  falls  every  month  in  the  year.  The  air  is 
always  dry,  because  in  winter  moisture  falls  in  the  form  of 
snow,  and  in  summer  it  is  quickly  evaporated  by  the  intense 
heat  of  the  sun.  The  thermometer  sometimes  rises  to  144° 
of  Fahrenheit  in  the  sun,  and  even  in  winter  his  direct  rays 
have  great  power  for  an  hour  or  two,  so  that  a  variation  of 
100°  in  the  temperature  of  the  air  has  occurred  in  twelve 
hours.  Notwithstanding  these  disadvantages  there  are  shel- 
tered spots  which  produce  most  of  the  European  grain  and 
fruit,  though  the  natural  vegetation  bears  the  Siberian  cha- 
21* 


246  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

racter,  but  the  species  are  quite  distinct.  The  most  com- 
mon indigenous  plants  are  Tartarian  furze  and  various 
prickly  shrubs  resembling  it,  gooseberries,  currants,  hyssop, 
dog-rose,  dwarf  sow-thistle,  equisetum,  rhubarb,  lucern,  and 
assafcEtida,  on  which  the  flocks  feed.  Prangos,  an  umbelli- 
ferous plant  with  broad  leaves  and  scented  blossom,  is  pecu- 
liar to  Ladak  and  Tibet.  Mr.  Moorcroft  says  it  is  so  nutri- 
tious, that  sheep  fed  on  it  become  fat  in  twenty  days. 
There  are  three  species  of  wheat,  three  of  barley,  and  two  of 
buckwheat,  natives  of  the  lofty  table-land,  where  the  sar- 
sinh  is  the  only  fruit  known  to  be  indigenous.  Owing  to 
the  rudeness  of  the  climate  trees  are  not  numerous,  yet  on 
the  lower  declivities  of  some  mountains  there  are  aspens, 
birch,  yew,  ash,  Tartaric  oak,  various  pines,  and  the  pavia, 
a  species  of  horse-chestnut.  Much  of  the  table-land  of  Tar- 
tary  is  occupied  by  the  Great  Gobi  and  other  deserts  of 
sand,  with  grassy  steppes  near  the  mountains  ;  but  of  the 
flora  of  these  regions  we  know  nothing. 


FLORA  OF   BRITAIN  AND  OF  MIDDLE  AND 
SOUTHERN   EUROPE. 

The  British  Islands  afford  an  excellent  illustration  of  dis- 
tinct provinces  of  animals  and  plants,  and  also  of  their  mi- 
gration from  other  centres.  Professor  E.  P^orbes  has  deter- 
mined five  botanical  districts,  four  of  which  are  restricted  to 
limited  provinces,  whilst  the  fifth,  which  comprehends  the 
great  mass  of  British  plants,  is  everywhere,  either  alone  or 
mixed  with  the  others.  The  first  includes  the  flora  of  the 
mountain  districts  in  the  west  and  south-west  of  Ireland, 
which  is  similar  to  that  in  the  north  of  Spain.  The  flora  in 
the  south  of  England  and  south-east  of  Ireland  is  different 
from  that  in  all  other  parts  of  the  British  Islands,  but  is  inti- 
mately related  to  that  of  the  Channel  Islands  and  the  French 
coast  opposite  to  them. 

In  the  south-east  of  England  the  flora  is  like  that  on  the 
adjacent  coast  of  France.  The  tops  of  the  Scottish  moun- 
tains are  the  focus  of  a  separate  flora,  a  few  of  whose  plants 
are  found  also  on  the  summits  of  the  mountains  in  Cumber- 
land and  Wales,  and  Scandinavian  plants  are  mingled  with 
it  in  Scotland.     The  fifth,  of  more  recent  origin  than  the 


FLORA    OF    MIDDLE    EUROPE.  247 

Alpine  flora,  includes  all  the  ordinary  flowering  plants,  as 
the  common  daisy  and  primrose,  hairy  ladies'  smock,  up- 
right meadow  crowfoot,  and  the  lesser  celandine,  together 
with  our  common  trees  and  shrubs,  has  migrated  from  Ger- 
many before  England  was  separated  from  the  continent  of 
Europe  by  the  British  Channel.  It  can  be  distinctly  traced 
in  its  progress  across  the  island,  but  the  migration  was  not 
completed  till  after  Ireland  was  separated  from  England  by 
the  Irish  Channel,  and  that  is  the  reason  why  many  of  the 
ordinary  English  plants,  animals,  and  reptiles  are  not  found 
in  the  sister  island,  for  the  migration  of  animals  was  simul- 
taneous with  that  of  plants,  and  took  place  between  the  last 
of  the  tertiary  periods  and  the  historical  epoch,  that  of  man's 
creation  :  it  was  extended  also  over  a  great  part  of  the  Con- 
tinent. 

Deciduous  trees  are  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  tempe- 
rate zone  of  the  old  continent,  more  especially  of  middle 
Europe  :  these  thrive  best  in  soil  produced  by  the  decay  of 
the  primary  and  ancient  volcanic  rocks,  which  furnish  abun- 
dance of  alkali.  Oaks,  elms,  beech,  ash,  larch,  maple,  lime, 
alder,  and  sycamore,  all  of  which  lose  their  leaves  in  winter, 
are  the  prevailing  vegetation,  occasionally  mixed  with  fir  and 
pine. 

The  undergrowth  consists  of  wild  apple,  cherry,  yew%  holly, 
hawthorn,  broom,  furze,  wild  rose,  honeysuckle,  clematis, 
&c.  The  most  numerous  and  characteristic  herbaceous  plants 
are  the  umbelliferous  class,  as  carrot  and  anise,  the  campa- 
nulas, the  chicoraceap,  a  family  to  w^hich  lettuce,  endive, 
dandelion,  and  sow-thistle  belong.  The  cruciform  tribe,  as 
w^allflower,  stock,  turnip,  cabbage,  cress,  &c.,  are  so  nume- 
rous, that  they  form  a  distinguishing  feature  in  the  botany  of 
middle  Europe,  to  which  45  species  of  them  belong.  This 
family  is  almost  confined  to  the  northern  hemisphere,  for  of 
800  known  species,  only  100  belong  to  the  southern,  the  soil 
of  which  must  contain  less  sulphur,  which  is  indispensable 
for  these  plants. 

In  the  Pyrenees,  Alps,  and  other  high  lands  in  Europe, 
the  gradation  of  botanical  forms  from  the  summit  to  the  foot 
of  the  mountains  is  similar  to  that  which  takes  place  from 
the  Arctic  to  the  middle  latitudes  of  Europe.  The  analogy, 
however,  is  true  only  when  viewed  generally,  for  many  local 
circumstances  of  climate  and  vegetation  interpose,  and  al- 


248  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

though  the  similarity  of  botanical  forms  is  very  great  between 
certain  zones  of  altitude  and  parallels  of  latitude,  the  species 
are  for  the  most  part  different. 

Evergreen  trees  and  shrubs  become  more  frequent  in  the 
southern  countries  of  Europe,  where  about  a  fourth  part  of 
the  ligneous  vegetation  never  entirely  lose  their  leaves.  The 
flora  consists  chiefly  of  ilex,  oak,  cypress,  hornbeam,  sweet 
chestnut,  laurel,  laurestina,  the  apple  tribe,  manna,  and  the 
flowering  ash,  carob,  jujub,  juniper,  terebinthinas,  and  len- 
tiscus  pistaccio,  which  yield  resin  and  mastick,  arbutus,  myr- 
tle, jessamine,  yellow  and  white,  various  pines,  as  the  pinus 
raaritima,  and  pinus  pinea,  or  stone  pine,  which  forms  so 
picturesque  a  feature  in  the  landscape  of  southern  Europe. 
The  most  prevalent  herbaceous  plants  are  caryophyllaj,  as 
pinks,  stellaria  and  arenarias,  and  also  the  labiate  tribe,  mint, 
thyme,  rosemary,  lavender,  with  many  others,  all  remarka- 
ble for  their  aromatic  properties,  and  their  love  of  dry  situa- 
tions. Many  of  the  choicest  plants  and  flowers,  which  adorn 
the  gardens  and  grounds  in  northern  Europe,  are  indigenous 
in  these  warmer  countries;  the  anemone,  tulip,  mignionette, 
narcissus,  gladiolus,  iris,  asphodel,  amaryllis,  carnation,  &c. 
In  Spain,  Portugal,  Sicily,  and  the  other  European  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean,  tropical  families  begin  to  appear  in  the 
arums,  plants  yielding  balsams,  oleander,  date  and  palmetto 
palms,  and  grasses  of  the  order  panicum  or  millet,  cyperaceae, 
or  sedges,  aloe  and  cactus.  In  this  zone  of  transition  there 
are  six  herbaceous  for  one  woody  plant., 


FLORA  OF  TEMPERATE  ASIA. 

The  vegetation  of  western  Asia  approaches  nearly  to  that 
of  India  at  one  extremity,  and  Europe  at  the  other;  of  281 
genera  of  plants  which  grow  in  Asia  Minor  and  Persia,  109 
are  European.  Syria  and  Asia  Minor  form  a  region  of  tran- 
sition, like  the  other  countries  on  the  Mediterranean,  where 
the  plants  of  the  temperate  and  tropical  zones  are  united. 
We  owe  many  of  our  best  fruits  and  sweetest  flowers  to  these 
regions.  The  cherry,  almond,  oleander,  syringa,  locust  tree, 
&c.,  come  from  Asia  Minor;  the  walnut,  peach,  melon,  cu- 
cumber, hyacinth,  ranunculus,  come  from  Persia;  the  date, 
palm,  fig,  olive,  mulberry,  and  damask    rose,  come  from 


FLORA    OF    ASIA.  249 

Syria;  the  vine  and  apricot  are  Armenian,  the  latter  grows 
also  everywhere  in  middle  and  northern  Asia.  The  tropical 
forms  met  with  in  more  sheltered  places  are  the  sugar-cane, 
date  and  palmetto  palms,  mimosas,  acacias,  asclepea  gigan- 
tea,  and  other  arborescent  apocinese.  On  the  mountains 
south  of  the  Black  Sea,  American  types  appear  in  rhododen- 
drons, and  the  azelea  pontica,  and  herbaceous  plants  are  nu- 
merous and  brilliant  in  these  countries. 

The  table-land  of  Persia,  though  not  so  high  as  that  of  eas- 
tern Asia,  resembles  it  in  the  quality  of  the  soil,  which  is 
chiefly  clayey,  sandy,  or  saline,  and  the  climate  is  very  dry  ; 
hence  vegetation  is  poor,  and  consists  of  thorny  bushes,  aca- 
cias, mimosas,  tamarisk,  jujub,  and  assafcetida.  Forests  of 
oak  cover  the  Lusistan  mountains,  but  the  date  palm  is  theonly 
produce  of  the  parched  shores  of  the  Arabian  Gulf  and  of  the 
oases  on  the  Persian  table-land.  In  the  valleys,  which  are 
beautiful,  there  are  clumps  of  Oriental  plane  and  other  trees, 
hawthorn,  tree  roses,  and  many  of  the  odoriferous  shrubs  of 
Arabia  Felix. 

Afghanistan  produces  the  seedless  pomegranate.  The  true 
indigo  grows  in  the  lower  offsets  of  the  Hindoo-Coosh,  where 
the  valleys  are  covered  with  clover,  thyme,  violets,  and  many 
odoriferous  plants:  the  greater  part  of  the  trees  in  the  moun- 
tains are  of  European  genera,  though  all  the  species  of  plants, 
both  woody  and  herbaceous,  are  peculiar. 

Hot  arid  deserts  bound  India  on  the  west,  where  the  stunted 
and  scorched  vegetation  consists  of  tamarisk,  thorny  acacia, 
deformed  euphorbise,  and  almost  leafless  thorny  trees,  shaggy 
with  long  hair,  by  which  they  imbibe  moisture  and  carbon 
from  the  atmosphere.  Indian  forms  appear  near  Delhi,  in 
the  genera  flacourtia  and  others,  mixed  with  Syrian  plants. 
East  of  this  transition  the  vegetation  becomes  entirely  Indian, 
except  on  the  higher  parts  of  the  mountains,  where  European 
types  prevail. 

The  Himalaya  Mountains  form  a  distinct  botanical  district. 
Immediately  below  the  snow-line  the  flora  is  almost  the  same 
with  that  on  the  high  plains  of  Tartary,  to  which  may  be 
added  rhododendrons  and  andromedas,  and  among  the  her- 
baceous plants  a  primrose  appears.  Lower  down  vast  tracts 
are  covered  with  prostrate  bamboos,  and  European  forms  be- 
come universal,  though  the  species  are  Indian,  as  gentians, 
plantagos,  campanulus,  and  gale.   There  are  extensive  forests 


250  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

of  coniferae,  consisting  chiefly  of  piniis  excelsa,  deodora,  and 
morinda,  with  many  decidaous  forest  and  fruit-trees  of  Euro- 
pean genera.  A  transition  from  this  flora  to  a  tropical  vege- 
tation takes  place  between  the  altitudes  of  9000  and  5000 
feet,  because  the  rains  of  the  monsoons  begin  to  be  felt  in 
this  region,  which  unites  the  plants  of  both.  Here  the  scarlet 
and  other  rhododendrons  grow  luxuriantly  ;  walnuts,  and  at 
least  ten  species  of  oak,  attain  a  great  size,  one  of  w^hich,  the 
quercus  semicarpifolia,  has  a  clean  trunk  from  80  to  100  feet 
high.  Geraniums,  labiate  plants,  are  mixed  in  sheltered 
spots  with  the  tropical  genera  of  scitaraineae,  or  the  ginger 
tribe;  bignonias  and  balsams,  and  camelias,  grow"  on  the 
lower  part  of  this  region. 

It  is  remarkable  that  Indian,  European,  American  and  Chi- 
nese forms  are  united  in  this  zone  of  transition,  though  the 
distinctness  of  species  still  obtains:  the  triosteum,  a  genus 
of  the  honeysuckle  tribe,  is  American  ;  the  abelia,  another 
genus  of  the  same,  together  with  the  camelia  and  tricyrtis, 
are  peculiarly  Chinese  ;  the  daisy  and  wild  thyme  are  Euro- 
pean. A  few  of  the  trees  and  plants  mentioned  descend 
below  the  altitude  of  5000  feet,  but  they  soon  disappear  on 
the  hot  declivities  of  the  mountain,  where  the  erythrina,  mo- 
nosperma,  and  bombex  heptaphyllum,  are  the  most  common 
trees,  together  with  the  millingtoneae,  a  tribe  of  large  timber 
trees,  met  w^ith  everywhere  between  the  Himalaya  and  3  0° 
north  latitude.  The  shorea  robusta,  dalbergia,  and  cedrela, 
a  genus  allied  to  mahogany,  are  the  most  common  trees  in 
the  forests  of  the  lower  regions  of  these  mountains. 

The  temperate  regions  of  eastern  Asia,  including  Chinese 
Tartary,  China,  and  Japan,  have  a  vegetation  totally  different 
from  that  of  any  other  part  of  the  globe  similarly  situated, 
and  shows  in  a  strong  point  of  view  the  distinct  character 
which  vegetation  assumes  in  different  longitudes.  In  Mand- 
shuria  and  the  vast  mountain-chains  that  slope  from  the  eas- 
tern extremity  of  the  high  Tartarian  table-land  to  the  fertile 
plains  in  China,  the  forests  and  flora  are  generally  of  Euro- 
pean genera,  but  Asiatic  species  ;  in  these  countries  the  buck- 
thorn and  honeysuckle  tribes  are  so  numerous  as  to  give  a 
peculiar  character  to  the  vegetation. 

The  transition  zone  in  this  country  lies  between  the  35th 
and  27th  parallels  of  north  latitude,  in  which  the  tropical 
flora  is  mixed  with   that  of  the  northern  provinces.     The 


FLORA    OF   ASIA.  251 

prevailing  plants  on  the  Chinese  low  grounds  are  glycyne, 
hortensia,  the  camphor  laurel,  stillingia  sebifera,  or  wax  tree, 
clerodendron, hibiscus,  sinensis, thuiaorientalis,  olea  fragrans, 
the  sweet  blossoms  of  which  are  mixed  with  the  finer  teas 
to  give  them  flavour  ;  melia  azedarach,  or  Indian  pride,  the 
paper  mulberry,  and  others  of  the  genus,  and  camelia  sasan- 
qua,  which  covers  hills  in  the  province  of  Kiong-si.  The 
tea-plant,  and  other  species  of  camelia,  grow  in  many  parts  ; 
the  finest  tea  is  the  produce  of  a  low  range  of  hills  between 
the  30th  and  32d  parallels,  an  offset  from  the  great  chain 
of  Peling.  The  tea-plant  is  not  confined  to  China,  it  grows 
on  the  mountains  of  iVssam,  and  as  some  species  of  the 
camelia  tribe  are  indigenous  in  the  temperate  regions  of  the 
Himalaya,  it  might  probably  be  cultivated  in  that  range. 

The  climate  of  Japan  is  milder  than  its  latitude  would 
indicate,  owing  to  the  influence  of  the  surrounding  ocean. 
European  forms  prevail  in  the  high  lands,  as  they  do  gene- 
rally throughout  the  mountains  of  Asia  and  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, with  the  difference  of  species,  as  abies  cembra, 
strobus,  and  larix.  The  Japanese  flora  is  similar  to  the 
Chinese,  and  there  are  30  American  plants,  besides  others 
of  Indian  and  tropical  climates.  These  islands,  neverthe- 
less, have  their  own  peculiar  flora,  distinct  in  its  nature  ;  as 
the  saphora,  corchorus,  aukuba,  mespilus,  and  pyrus  Japonica, 
rhus  vernix,  oralis  cordata,  the  anise  tree,  daphne  odorata, 
the  soap  tree,  various  species  of  the  calecanthus  tribe,  the 
custard  apple,  the  khair  mimosa,  which  yields  the  catechu, 
the  leechee,  the  sweet  orange,  the  cycas  revoluta,  a  plant 
resembling  a  dwarf  palm,  with  various  other  fruit.  Many 
tropical  plants  mingle  with  the  vegetation  of  the  cocoa-nut 
and  fan-palms. 

Thus  the  vegetation  in  Japan  and  China  is  widely  different 
from  that  in  the  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean, 
though  between  the  same  parallels  of  latitude.  In  the 
tropical  regions  of  Asia,  where  heat  and  moisture  are  ex- 
cessive, the  influence  of  latitude  vanishes  altogether,  and 
the  peculiarities  of  the  vegetation  in  different  longitudes  be- 
come more  evident. 


252  PHVSICAI<    GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

FLORA     OF     TROPICAL    ASIA OF    THE     INDIAN     ARCHIPELAGO 


J 


INDIA,    AND    ARABIA. 


Tropical  Asia  is  divided  by  nature  into  three  distinct 
botanical  regions:  the  Malayan  peninsula  with  the  Indian 
Archipelago  ;  India,  south  of  the  Himalaya,  with  the  island 
of  Ceylon  ;  and  the  Arabian  peninsula.  The  two  first  have 
strong  points  of  resemblance,  though  their  floras  are  peculiar. 


FLORA  OF  THE  INDO-CHINESE  PENINSULA  AND 
THE  INDIAN  ARCHIPELAGO. 

Many  of  the  vegetable  productions  of  the  peninsula  beyond 
the  Ganges  are  the  same  with  those  of  India,  mixed  with 
the  plants  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  so  that  this  country  is 
a  region  of  transition,  though  it  has  a  splendid  vegetation  of 
innumerable  native  productions,  dyes  of  the  most  vivid  hues, 
spices,  medicinal  plants,  and  many  with  the  sweetest  per- 
fume. The  soil  in  many  places  yields  three  crops  in  the 
year  ;  the  fruit  of  India,  and  most  of  those  of  China,  come 
to  perfection  in  the  low  lands.  The  arengpaira  is  peculiarly 
characteristic  of  the  Malayan  peninsula  ;  it  yields  sago  and 
wine,  is  an  ugly  plant,  covered  with  black  fibres  like  coarse 
horse-hair,  so  strong  that  cordage  is  made  of  it.  Teak  is 
plentiful  ;  almost  all  that  is  used  in  Bengal  comes  from  the 
Birman  empire,  though  it  is  less  durable  than  that  of  the 
Malabar  coast.  The  hopoea  odorata  is  so  large  that  a  canoe 
is  made  of  a  single  trunk  ;  the  cardonia  integrifolia  is  held 
in  such  veneration  that  every  Birman  house  has  a  beam 
of  it. 

There  are  seven  species  of  native  oak  in  the  forests  ;  the 
mimosa  catechu,  which  furnishes  the  terra  japonica  used  in 
medicine  ;  the  trees  which  produce  varnish  and  stick-lac  ; 
the  glyphyrea  nitida,  a  myrtle,  the  leaves  of  which  are  used 
as  tea  in  Bencoolen,  called  by  the  natives  the  tree  of  long 


FLORA    OF    TROPICAL    ASIA.  253 

life.  The  coasts  are  wooded  by  the  heriliera  robiista,  a 
large  tree  which  thrives  within  reach  of  the  tide  ;  bamboos 
witli  steins  a  foot  and  a  haU'  in  diameter  grow  in  dense 
thickets  in  the  low  lands.  The  palmyra  palm  and  the  borassus 
flabeiliformis  grow  in  extensive  groves  in  the  valley  of  the 
Irawaddie  :  it  is  a  magnificent  tree,  often  100  leet  high,  re- 
markable for  its  gigantic  leaves,  one  of  which  would  shelter 
twelve  men. 

The  anomalous  trees,  the  zamas  and  cycades,  somewhat 
like  a  palm  with  large  pinnated  leaves,  but  of  a  different 
genus,  are  found  here  and  in  tropical  India ;  those  in  America 
are  of  a  different  species.  Orchidese  and  tree-ferns  are  in- 
numerable in  the  woody  districts  of  the  peninsula. 

The  vegetation  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  is  gorgeous 
beyond  description  ;  although  in  many  instances  it  bears  a 
strong  analogy  to  that  of  the  Malayan  peninsula,  tropical 
India,  and  Ceylon,  still  it  is  in  an  eminent  degree  peculiar. 
The  height  of  the  mountains  causes  variety  in  the  temperature 
sufficient  to  admit  of  the  growth  of  dammer  pines,  oaks,  rho- 
dodendrons, magnolias,  valerians,  honey-suckles,  bilberries, 
gentians,  oleasters,  and  other  European  orders  of  woody  and 
herbaceous  plants  ;  yet  there  is  not  one  species  in  common. 

Jungle  and  dense  pestilential  woods  entirely  cover  the 
smaller  islands  and  the  plains  of  the  larger  ;  the  coasts  are 
lined  with  thickets  of  mangroves,  a  matted  vegetation  of 
forest  trees,  palms,  bamboos,  and  coarse  grass,  entwined 
with  climbing  and  creeping  plants,  and  overgrown  by  or- 
chideous  parasites  in  myriads.  The  forest  trees  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago  are  almost  unknown  ;  teak  and  many  of  the 
continental  trees  grow  there,  but  the  greater  number  are 
peculiarly  their  own.  The  naturalist  Rumphius  had  a 
cabinet  inlaid  with  400  kinds  of  wood,  the  produce  of 
Amboyna  and  the  Molucca  Islands. 

Sumatra,  Java,  and  the  adjacent  islands,  are  the  region 
of  the  caryota  urens  and  of  the  dryobalanops  camphora  of 
the  laurel  tribe,  in  the  stems  of  which  solid  lumps  of  camphor 
are  found.  All  the  trees  of  that  order,  and  of  several  others, 
are  peculiar  to  these  islands,  and  78  species  of  trees  and 
shrubs  of  the  raelastoma  tribe  grow  there  and  in  continental 
India.  There  are  thickets  of  the  sword-leaved  vaquois  tree 
and  of  the  pandanus  or  screw-pine,  a  plant  resembling  the 
22 


254  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

anana,  with  a  blossom  like  that  of  a  bulrush,  very  odoriferous, 
and  in  some  species  edible. 

This  is  the  region  of  spices,  which  are  very  limited  in  their 
distribution  :  the  myristica  moschata,  the  nutmeg,  and  mace- 
plant,  is  confined  to  the  Banda  Islands,  but  it  is  said  to  have 
been  discovered  lately  in  New  Guinea.  The  Amboyna 
group  is  the  focus  of  the  caryophyllus  aromaticus,  a  myrtle, 
the  buds  of  which  are  known  as  cloves.  Various  species  of 
cinnamon  and  cassia,  both  of  the  laurel  tribe,  together  with 
varieties  of  pepper,  different  from  those  in  India  and  Ceylon, 
grow  in  this  archipelago.  Some  of  the  most  excellent  fruits 
are  indigenous  here  only,  as  the  dourio,  the  ayer  ayer, 
langsat,  the  choapa  of  Molucca,  peculiar  kinds  of  orange, 
lemon,  and  citron,  with  others  known  only  by  name  else- 
w^here.  Those  common  to  the  continent  of  India  are  the 
jam- rose,  rose- apple,  jack,  various  species  of  bread-fruit, 
mango,  mangosteen,  and  the  banana,  which  is  luxuriant. 

Here  the  nettle  tribe  assume  the  most  pernicious  character, 
as  the  upas  tree  of  Java,  one  of  the  most  deadly  vegetable 
poisons,  and  even  the  plants  resembling  our  common  nettle, 
are  so  acrid  that  the  sting  of  one  in  Java  occasions  not  only 
pain  but  illness,  which  lasts  for  days.  A  nettle  in  the  island 
of  Timor,  called  by  the  natives  the  "  DeviPs  leaf,"  is  so 
poisonous  that  it  produces  long  illness  and  even  death.  The 
chelik,  a  shrub  growing  in  the  dense  forests,  produces  a 
poison  even  more  deadly  than  the  upas.  Some  of  the  fig 
genus,  which  belongs  also  to  the  natural  order  of  nettles, 
have  acrid  juices.  Trees  of  the  cashew  tribe  have  a  milky 
sap  :  the  fine  japan  lacquer  is  made  from  the  juice  of  the 
stagmaria  verniciflua.  Palms  are  very  splendid  here,  gene- 
rally of  peculiar  species  and  limited  in  their  distribution,  as 
the  nissa  and  Barringtonia.  No  country  is  richer  in  club- 
mosses  and  orchideous  plants,  which  overrun  the  trees  in 
thousands  in  the  deep  dark  mountain-forests,  choked  by 
huge  creeping  plants,  an  undergrowth  of  gigantic  grasses, 
through  which  not  a  ray  of  light  penetrates. 

Sir  Stamford  Raflfles  describes  the  vegetation  of  Java  as 
**  fearful."  In  these  forests  the  air  is  heavy,  charged  with 
dank  and  deadly  vapours,  never  agitated  by  a  breath  of 
wind  ;  the  soil,  of  the  deepest  black  vegetable  mould,  always 
moist  and  clammy,  stimulated  by  the  fervid  heat  of  a  tropi- 
cal sun,  produces  trees  whose  stems  are  of  a  spongy  texture 


FLORA    OF    INDIA.  255 

from  their  rapid  growth,  loaded  with  parasites,  particularly 
the  orchideous  tribe,  of  which  no  less  than  300  species  are 
peculiar  to  that  island.  Tree-ferns  are  in  the  proportion  of 
one  to  twenty  of  the  other  plants,  and  form  a  large  portion 
of  the  vegetation  of  Java  and  all  these  islands  ;  and  there 
are  above  200  tropical  species  of  club-mosses  growing  to 
the  height  of  three  feet,  whereas  in  cold  countries  they  creep 
on  the  ground. 

The  Rafflesia,  of  which  there  are  four  genera,  are  the 
most  singular  productions  of  this  archipelago.  The  most 
extraordinary  is  common  to  Java  and  Sumatra,  where  it  was 
discovered  by  Mr.  Arnold,  and  therefore  is  called  Rafflesia 
Arnoldi.  It  is  a  parasitical  plant,  with  buds  the  size  of  an 
ordinary  cabbage,  and  the  (lower,  which  smells  of  carrion, 
is  of  a  brick-red  colour,  three  feet  and  a  half  in  diameter: 
that  found  by  Mr.  Arnold  weighed  fifteen  pounds,  and  the 
cup  in  its  centre  could  contain  twelve  pints  of  liquid. 

According  to  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  there  are  six  distinct 
climates  in  Java,  from  the  top  of  the  mountains  to  the  sea, 
each  having  an  extensive  indigenous  vegetation.  No  other 
country  can  show  an  equal  abundance  and  variety  of  native 
fruit  and  esculent  vegetables.  There  are  lOO  varieties  of  rice, 
and  of  fragrant  flowers,  shrubs,  and  ornamental  trees  the 
number  is  infinite.  Abundant  as  the  orchidese  are  in  Java, 
Ceylon,  and  the  Burmese  empire,  these  countries  possess 
very  few  that  are  common  to  them  all,  so  local  is  their  dis- 
tribution. Ferns  are  more  plentiful  in  this  archipelago  than 
elsewhere  :  tree-ferns  are  found  chiefly  between  or  near  the 
tropics,  in  airless  damp  places. 


INDIAN   FLORA. 

The  plains  of  Hindostan  are  so  completely  sheltered  from 
the  Siberian  blasts  by  the  high  table-lands  of  Tartary  and 
the  Himalaya  Mountains,  that  the  vegetation  at  the  foot  of 
that  range  already  assumes  a  tropical  character.  In  the  Jun- 
gles and  lower  ridges  of  the  fertile  valley  of  Nepal,  and  on 
the  dark  and  airless  recesses  of  the  Silhet  forests,  arbores- 
cent ferns  and  orchideous  plants  are  found  in  profusion, 
scarcely  surpassed  even  in  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago— indeed  the  marshy  Tariyane  is  full  of  them.     The 


256  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

lowest  ranges  of  the  Himalaya,  the  pestilential  swamp  of  the 
Tariyane,  the  alluvial  ridges  of  the  hills  that  bound  it  on  the 
south,  and  many  parts  of  the  plains  of  the  Ganges,  are  covered 
with  primeval  forests,  which  produce  whole  orders  of  large 
timber  trees,  frequently  over-run  with  parasitical  loranthe. 

The  native  fruit  of  India  are  many;  the  orange  tribe  is 
almost  all  of  Indian  origin,  though  some  of  the  species  are 
now  widely  spread  over  the  warmer  parts  of  the  other  con- 
tinents and  the  more  distant  countries  of  Asia.  Two  or  three 
species  are  peculiar  to  Madagascar;  one  is  found  in  the 
forests  of  the  Essequibo  and  another  in  Brazil,  which  are 
the  only  exceptions  known.  The  limonia  laureola  grows  on 
the  tops  of  the  high  Asiatic  mountains,  which  are  covered 
with  snow  several  months  in  the  year  ;  and  the  wampee,  a 
fruit  much  esteemed  in  China  and  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
is  produced  by  a  species  of  this  order.  The  vine  grows 
wild  in  the  forests;  plantain,  banana,  jamrose,  guava, 
mango,  mangosteen,  date,  areca,  palmyra,  cocoa-nut,  and 
gameto-palms  are  all  Indian,  also  the  gourd  family.  The 
Scitaminae,  or  ginger-tribe,  are  so  numerous,  that  they  form 
a  distinguishing  and  beautiful  feature  of  Indian  botany  :  they 
produce  ginger,  cardamoms,  and  turmeric.  The  flowers 
peculiar  to  India  are  brilliant  in  colours,  but  generally  with- 
out odour,  except  the  rose  and  some  jessamines. 

The  greater  part  of  the  trees  and  plants  mentioned  belong 
also  to  tropical  India,  where  vegetation  is  still  more  luxu- 
riant ;  a  large  portion  of  that  magnificent  country,  contain- 
ing 1,000,000  square  miles,  has  been  cultivated  time  imme- 
morial, although  vast  tracts  still  remain  in  a  state  of  nature. 
Those  extensive  mountain-chains  which  traverse  and  sur- 
round the  Deccan  are  rich  in  primeval  forests  of  stupendous 
growth  with  dense  underwood.  The  most  remarkable  of 
these  trees  are  the  Indian  cotton-tree  and  the  dombeya, 
which  is  of  the  same  order  ;  that  which  produces  the  Trin- 
comalee  wood,  used  for  building  boats  at  Madras;  the  red- 
wood tree,  peculiar  to  the  Corornandel  coast,  the  satin-wood, 
the  superb  butea  frondosa,  the  agallshium  tribe,  which  yields 
the  odorous  wood  of  aloes  mentioned  in  Scripture,  the  mela- 
leuca  leucadendron  and  the  melaleuca  cnjapute,  from  which 
the  oil  is  prepared.  The  dragon-tree  is  a  native  of  India, 
though  not  exclusively,  as  som^e  of  the  best  specimens  grow 
in    the   Azores   and   Madagascar,   where   it    is  planted   for 


FLORA    OF    INDIA.  257 

hedges.  Sanders- wood  and  dragon's-blood  are  obtained 
from  the  pterocarpus  sandalinus  and  draco  ;  the  sappan-tree 
gives  a  purple  dye  :  these  are  all  of  the  leguminous  or  bean 
tribe,  of  which  there  are  452  Indian  species  :  ebony  grows 
in  these  tropical  regions,  in  Mauritius,  and  the  south  coast 
of  Africa. 

Some  of  the  fig  tribe  are  among  the  most  remarkable 
vegetable  productions  of  India  for  gigantic  size  and  pecu- 
Jiarity  of  form,  which  renders  them  valuable  in  a  hot  cli- 
mate from  the  shade  which  their  broad-spreading  tops  afford. 
Some  throw  off  shoots  from  their  branches,  which  take  root 
on  reaching  the  ground,  and  after  increasing  in  girth  with 
wonderful  rapidity,  produce  branches  which  also  descend  to 
form  new  roots,  and  this  process  is  continued  till  a  forest  is 
formed  round  the  parent  tree.  Mr.  Reinwardt  saw  in  the 
island  of  Simao  a  large  wood  of  the  ficus  Benjamina  which 
sprung  from  one  stem.  The  ficus  Indicus,  or  banyan  tree, 
is  another  instance  of  this  wude-spreading  growth  ;  it  is 
found  in  the  islands,  but  is  in  greatest  perfection  around  the 
villages  in  the  Circar  mountains.  The  camphor  genus  is 
mostly  Indian,  as  well  as  many  more  of  the  laurel  tribe  of 
great  size.  The  banana  is  the  most  generally  useful  tree  in 
this  country  ;  its  fruit  is  food,  its  leaves  are  applied  to  many 
domestic  purposes,  and  flax  fit  for  making  muslin  is  obtained 
from  its  stem. 

Palms,  the  most  stately  and  graceful  of  the  vegetable  pro- 
ductions of  tropical  regions,  are  abundant  in  India,  in  forests, 
in  groups,  and  in  single  trees.  Some  species  grow  at  the  limit 
of  perpetual  snow,  some  900  feet  above  the  sea,  others  in 
valleys  and  on  the  shores  of  the  continent  and  islands. 
They  decrease  in  number  and  variety  as  the  latitude  in- 
creases, and  terminate  at  Nice,  in  44°  N.  lat.,  their  limit  in 
the  great  continent.  The  leaves  of  some  are  of  gigantic 
size,  and  all  are  beautiful,  varying  in  height  from  the  slen- 
der calamus  rudentum,  500  feet  high,  to  the  chamaerops 
humilis,  not  more  than  15  or  20.  Different  species  yield 
wine,  oil,  wax,  flour,  sugar,  thread,  and  rope  ;  weapons  and 
utensils  are  made  of  their  stems  and  leaves  ;  they  serve  for 
the  construction  of  houses  ;  the  cocoa-nut  palm  gives  food 
and  drink  ;  sago  is  made  from  all  except  the  areca  catechu, 
the  fruit  of  which,  the  betel-nut,  is  used  by  the  natives  for 
its  intoxicating  quality.  A  few  of  the  species  are  widely 
22* 


258  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

spread,  for  example  the  cocoa-nut  palm,  though  they  are  in 
general  very  limited  in  their  distribution. 

The  island  of  Ceylon,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the 
southernmost  extremity  of  the  Indian  peninsula,  is  very 
mountainous,  and  rivals  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago in  luxuriance  of  vegetable  productions,  and  in  some 
respects  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  them.  The  laurel, 
the  bark  of  which  is  cinnamon,  is  indigenous,  and  one  of 
the  principal  sources  of  the  revenue  of  Ceylon.  The  taleput 
leaves  of  the  areca  palm  are  of  such  enormous  size,  that  they 
are  applied  to  many  uses  b}  the  Cingalese  :  in  ancient  times 
stripes  of  the  leaf  were  written  upon  with  a  sharp  style,  and 
served  as  books.  The  sandal-wood  of  Ceylon  is  of  a  dif- 
ferent species  from  that  of  the  South  Sea  Islands,  and  its 
perfume  more  esteemed.  Indigo  is  indigenous,  and  so  is 
the  choya,  whose  roots  give  a  scarlet  dye.  The  mountains 
produce  a  great  variety  of  beautiful  w'oods  used  in  cabinet- 
work. It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance  in  the  distribution 
of  plants,  that  the  orchidese  are  very  numerous  in  this  island, 
and  that  there  should  be  none  in  the  Indian  peninsula. 


ARABIAN  VEGETATION. 

The  third  division  of  the  tropical  flora  of  Asia  is  the 
Arabian,  which  differs  widely  from  the  other  two,  and  is 
chiefly  marked  by  trees  yielding  balsams.  Oceans  of  barren 
sand  extend  to  the  south,  from  Syria  through  the  greater 
part  of  Arabia,  varied  only  by  occasional  oases  in  those 
spots  where  a  spring  of  water  has  reached  the  surface  ;  there 
the  prevalent  vegetation  consists  of  the  grasses,  holcus  and 
panicum  dicotomum  growing  under  the  shade  of  the  date- 
palm  ;  mimosas  and  stunted  prickly  bushes  appear  here  and 
there  in  the  sand.  There  is  verdure  on  the  mountains,  and 
along  some  of  the  coasts,  especially  in  the  province  of 
Yemen,  which  has  a  flora  of  its  own,  and  is  the  native  country 
of  coflee,  which  is  now  cultivated  over  half  the  globe. 
Most  of  the  coffee  used  is  the  progeny  of  a  single  plant 
brought  from  Mocha  to  the  botanic  garden  at  Amsterdam, 
by  Van  Hoorn,  the  governor  of  Batavia,  in  the  year  1718. 
Plants  were  sent  to  Surinam,  from  whence  they  spread 
rapidly   over    the   warm   parts   of   America   and    the   West 


FLORA    OF    AFRICA.  259 

Indian  Islands.  The  keura  odorifera,  a  superb  tree,  with 
agreeable  perfume,  eight  species  of  figs,  the  three  species  of 
amyris  gileadensis,  or  balm  of  Gilead,  opobalsamum  also 
yielding  balsam,  and  the  kataf,  from  which  myrrh  is  sup- 
posed to  come,  are  peculiar  to  Arabia.  Frankincense  is  said 
to  be  the  produce  of  the  Boswellia  serrata  ;  and  there  are 
many  species  of  acacia,  among  others  the  acacia  arabica, 
which  produces  gum  arabic.  The  arak  and  tamarind  trees 
connect  the  botany  of  Arabia  with  that  of  the  West  Indies, 
while  it  is  connected  with  that  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
by  Stapelias,  mesembryanthemums,  and  liliaceous  flowers. 
The  character  of  Arabian  vegetation,  like  that  of  other  dry 
hot  climates,  consists  in  its  odoriferous  plants  and  flowers. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 


AFRICAN    FLORA FLORA    OF    AUSTRALIA,   NEW  ZEALAND,  NOR- 
FOLK   ISLAND,   AND    OF    POLYNESIA. 

The  northern  coast  of  Africa,  and  the  range  of  the  Atlas 
generally,  may  be  regarded  as  a  zone  of  transition,  where 
the  plants  of  southern  Europe  are  mingled  with  those  pecu- 
liar to  the  country  ;  half  the  plants  of  northern  Africa  are 
also  found  in  the  other  countries  on  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. Of  60  trees  and  248  shrubs  which  grow  there, 
100  only  are  peculiar  to  Africa,  and  about  18  of  these 
belong  to  its  tropical  flora.  There  are  about  six  times  as 
many  herbaceous  plants  as  there  are  trees  and  shrubs  ;  and 
in  the  Atlas  Mountains,  as  in  other  chains,  the  perennial 
plants  are  much  more  numerous  than  annuals.  Evergreens 
predominate,  and  are  the  same  as  those  on  the  other  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean.  The  pomegranate,  the  locust-tree,  the 
oleander,  and  the  palmetto  abound  ;  and  the  cistus  tribe 
give  a  distinct  character  to  the  flora.  The  sandarach,  or 
thuia  articulata,  peculiar  to  the  northern  side  of  the  Atlas 
Mountains  and  to  Cyrenaica,  yields  close-grained  hard  tim- 
ber, used  for  the  ceiling  of  mosques,  and  is  supposed  to  be 
the  shittim-wood  of  Scripture.  The  Atlas  produces  seven 
or  eight  species  of  oak,  various  pines,  especially  the  pinus 
maritima,  and  forests  of  the  Aleppo  pine  in  Algiers.     The 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


260  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

sweet-scented  arborescent  heath  and  erica  scoparia  are  native 
here,  also  in  the  Canary  Islands  and  the  Azores,  where  the 
tribe  of  house-leeks  characterizes  the  botany.  There  are 
534  phanerogamous  plants,  or  such  as  have  the  parts  of 
fructification  evident,  in  the  Canary  Islands  ;  the  pinus  ca- 
narienses  is  peculiar,  and  also  the  dracoenae,  which  grow  in 
perfection  here.  The  stern  of  the  draccena  draco,  of  the 
Villa  Oratavas  in  Teneriffe,  measures  46  feet  in  circumfe- 
rence at  the  base  of  the  tree,  which  is  75  feet  high.  It  is 
known  to  have  been  an  object  of  great  antiquity  in  the  year 
1402,  and  is  still  alive,  bearing  blossoms  and  fruit.  If  it 
be  not  an  instance  of  the  partial  location  of  plants,  there 
must  have  been  intercourse  between  India  and  the  Canary 
Islands  in  very  ancient  times. 

Plants  with  bluish-green  succulent  leaves  are  character- 
istic of  tropical  Africa  and  its  islands  ;  and  though  the  group 
of  the  Canaries  has  plants  in  common  with  Spain,  Portugal, 
Africa,  and  the  Azores,  yet  there  are  many  species,  and 
even  genera,  which  are  found  in  them  only  ;  and  the  height 
of  the  mountains  causes  much  variety  in  the  vegetation. 

On  the  continent,  south  of  the  Atlas,  a  great  change  of 
soil  and  climate  takes  place  ;  the  drought  on  the  borders  of 
the  desert  is  so  excessive  that  no  trees  can  resist  it,  rain 
hardly  ever  falls,  and  the  scorching  blasts  from  the  south 
speedily  dry  up  any  moisture  that  may  exist ;  yet  in  conse- 
quence of  what  descends  from  the  mountains,  the  date-palm 
forms  large  forests  along  their  base,  which  supply  the  inhabi- 
tants with  food,  and  give  shelter  to  crops  which  could  not 
otherwise  grow.  Stunted  plants  are  the  only  produce  of  the 
desert,  yet  large  tracts  are  covered  with  the  pennisetum 
dichotomum,  a  harsh  prickly  grass,  which,  together  with  the 
alhagi  maurosin,  are  the  food  of  camels. 

The  plants  peculiar  to  Egypt  are  acacias,  mimosas,  cassias, 
tamarisks,  the  lotus  nymphsea,  the  blue  lotus,  the  papyrus, 
from  which  probably  the  first  substance  used  for  writing 
upon  was  made,  and  has  left  its  name  to  that  we  now  use  : 
also  the  ziziphus  or  jujub,  various  mesembryanthemums, 
and  most  of  the  plants  of  Barbary  grow  here.  The  date- 
palm  is  not  found  higher  on  the  Nile  than  Thebes,  where  it 
gives  place  to  the  doom-palm,  or  crucifera  Thebaica,  pecu- 
liar to  this  district,  and  singular  as  being  the  only  palm  that 
has  a  branched  stem. 


FLORA    OF    AFRICA.  261 

The  eastern  side  of  equatorial  Africa  is  less  known  than 
the  western,  but  the  floras  of  the  two  countries,  under  the 
same  latitude,  have  little  affinity;  on  the  eastern  side  the 
rubiaceae,  the  euphorbise,  a  race  peculiarly  African,  and 
the  malviacese,  are  most  frequent.  The  genera  danais 
of  the  coffea  tribe  distinguish  the  vegetation  of  Abyssinia, 
also  the  dombeya,  the  senaceoe,  a  species  of  vine,  various 
jessamines,  a  beautiful  species  of  honey-suckle  ;  and  Bruce 
says  the  caper-tree  grows  to  the  height  of  the  elm,  with 
white  blossoms,  and  fruit  as  large  as  a  peach.  The  daroo, 
or  ficus  sycamoris,  and  the  arak  tree,  are  native.  The 
kollqiiall,  or  euphorbia  antiquorum,  grows  40  feet  high  on 
the  plain  of  Baharnagach,  in  the  form  of  an  elegant  branched 
candelabrum,  covered  with  scented  fruit.  The  kantuffa,  or 
thorny  shrub,  is  so  great  a  nuisance  from  its  spines,  that  even 
animals  avoid  it.  The  erythrina  Abyssinica  bears  a  poison- 
ous red  bean  with  a  black  spot,  used  by  the  Shangalla  and 
other  tribes  for  ages,  as  a  weight  for  gold,  and  by  the  women 
as  necklaces.  Mr.  Rochet  has  lately  brought  some  seeds  of 
new  grain  from  Shoa,  that  are  likely  to  be  a  valuable  addi- 
tion to  European  cerealia. 

The  vegetation  of  tropical  Africa,  on  the  west,  is  known 
only  along  the  coast,  where  some  affinity  with  that  of  India 
may  be  observed.  It  consists  of  573species  of  flower-bearing 
plants,  and  is  distinguished  by  a  remarkable  uniformity,  not 
only  in  orders  and  genera,  but  even  in  species,  from  the  16° 
of  north  latitude  to  the  river  Congo  in  6°  of  south  latitude. 
The  most  prevalent  are  the  grasses  and  bean  tribes,  the 
cyperacese,  rubiacese,  and  the  compositce.  The  Adamsonia, 
or  boabab  of  Senegal,  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  vege- 
table productions  ;  the  stem  is  sometimes  34  feet  in  diameter, 
though  the  tree  is  rarely  more  than  50  or  60  feet  high  ;  it 
covers  the  sandy  plains  so  entirely  with  its  umbrella-shaped 
top,  that  a  forest  of  these  trees  presents  a  compact  surface, 
which  at  some  distance  seems  to  be  a  green  field.  Cape 
Verde  has  its  name  from  the  numbers  that  conceal  the  barren 
soil  under  their  spreading  tops  :  some  of  them  are  very  old, 
and,  with  the  dragon-tree  at  TenerifTe,  are  supposed  to  be 
the  most  ancient  vegetable  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  The 
pandanus  candelabrum,  instead  of  growing  crowded  together 
in  masses  like  the  boabab,  stands  solitary  on  the  equatorial 
plains,  with  its  lofty  forked  branches  ending  in  tufts  of  long 


262  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

stiff' leaves.  Numerous  sedges,  of  which  the  papyrus  is  the 
most  remarkable,  give  a  character  to  this  region,  and  cover 
boundless  plains  waving  in  the  wind  like  corn-fields,  while 
other  places  are  overgrown  by  forests  of  gigantic  grasses 
with  branching  stems. 

A  rich  vegetation,  consisting  of  impenetrable  thickets  of 
mangrove,  the  poisonous  manchineel,  and  many  large  trees, 
cover  the  deltas  of  the  rivers,  and  even  grow  so  far  into  the 
water,  that  their  trunks  are  coated  with  shell-fish,  but  the 
pestilential  exhalations  render  it  almost  certain  death  to 
botanize  in  this  luxuriance  of  nature. 

Various  trees  of  the  soap  and  sapodilla  tribes  are  peculiar 
to  Africa  ;  the  butter-tree  of  the  enterprising  but  unfortunate 
Mungo  Park,  the  star  apple,  the  cream  fruit,  the  custard 
apple,  and  the  water  vine,  are  plentiful  in  Senegal  and 
Sierra  Leone.  The  safu  and  bread-fruit  of  Polynesia  are 
represented  here  by  the  musanga,  a  large  tree  of  the  nettle 
tribe,  the  fruit  of  which  has  the  flavour  of  the  hazel-nut.  A 
few  palms  have  very  local  habitations,  as  the  elais  Gui- 
neensis,  found  on  that  coast.  That  graceful  tribe  is  less 
varied  in  species  in  equatorial  Africa  than  in  the  other  con- 
tinents. 

The  flora  of  south  Africa  diff'ers  entirely  from  that  of  the 
northern  and  tropical  zones,  and  as  widely  from  that  of  every 
other  country,  with  the  exception  of  Australia  and  some 
parts  of  Chili.  The  soil  of  the  table-land  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  stretching  to  an  unknown  distance,  and  of  the 
Karoo  plains  and  valleys  between  the  mountains,  is  some- 
times gravelly,  but  more  frequently  is  composed  of  sand  and 
clay  ;  in  summer  it  is  dry  and  parched,  and  most  of  its  rivers 
are  dried  up  ;  it  bears  but  a  few  stunted  shrubs,  some  suc- 
culent plants  and  mimosas  along  the  margin  of  the  river 
courses.  The  sudden  eflfect  of  rain  on  the  parched  ground 
is  like  magic  ;  it  is  recalled  to  life,  and  in  a  short  time  is 
decked  with  a  beautiful  and  peculiar  vegetation,  compre- 
hending, more  than  any  other  country,  numerous  and  dis- 
tinctly defined  foci  of  genera  and  species. 

Twelve  thousand  species  of  plants  have  been  collected  in 
the  colony  of  the  Cape,  in  an  extent  of  country  about  equal 
to  Germany.  Of  these  heaths  and  proteas  are  two  very  con- 
s})icuous  tribes  ;  there  are  300  species  of  the  former,  and 
200  of  the  latter,  both  of  which  have  nearly  the  same  limited 


FLORA    OF    AFRICA.  263 

range,  though  Mr.  Bunbury  found  two  heaths,  and  the  protea 
cynaroides,  the  most  splendid  of  the  family,  bearing  a  flower 
the  size  of  a  man's  hat,  on  the  hills  round  Graham's  Town, 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  colony.  These  two  tribes  of  plants 
are  so  limited  that  there  is  not  one  of  either  to  be  seen  north 
of  the  mountains  which  bound  the  Great  Karoo,  and  by 
much  the  greatest  number  of  them  grow  within  100  miles  of 
Cape  Town  ;  indeed  at  the  distance  of  only  40  miles  the 
prevailing  proteacese  are  different  from  those  at  the  Cape. 
The  leucadendron  argentum,  or  silver  tree,  which  forms 
groves  at  the  back  of  the  Table-mountain,  is  confined  to  the 
peninsula  of  the  Cape.  The  beautiful  disa  grandiflora  is 
found  only  in  one  particular  place  on  the  top  of  the  Table- 
mountain. 

The  dry  sand  of  the  west  coast  and  the  country  northward 
through  many  degrees  of  latitude  is  the  native  habitation  of 
stapelias,  succulent  plants  with  square  leafless  stems  and 
flowers  like  star-fish,  with  the  smell  of  carrion.  A  great 
portion  of  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  Cape  colony  and  the  ad- 
jacent districts  are  covered  with  extensive  thickets  of  a  strong 
succulent  and  thorny  vegetation,  called  by  the  natives  the 
bush  :  similar  thickets  occur  again  far  to  the  west,  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  Gauritz.  The  most  common  plants  of  the 
bush  are  aloes  of  many  species,  all  exceedingly  fleshy  and 
some  beautiful  ;  the  great  red-flowering  arborescent  aloe, 
and  some  others,  make  a  conspicuous  figure  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  colony.  Other  characteristic  plants  of  the  eastern 
districts  are  the  spek-boem,  or  portulacaria  afra,  schotia  spe- 
ciosa,  and  the  great  succulent  euphorbias,  which  grow  into 
real  trees  40  feet  high,  branching  like  a  candelabrum,  en- 
tirely leafless,  prickly,  and  with  a  very  acrid  juice.  The 
euphorbia  meloformis,  whose  bulb,  three  feet  in  diameter,  lies 
on  the  ground,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  slender  fibrous  roots, 
is  confined  to  the  mountains  of  Graaf  Reynet.  Euphorbias, 
in  the  Old  World,  correspond  with  the  cactus  tribe,  which 
belong  exclusively  to  the  New.  The  zamia,  a  singular  plant, 
having  the  appearance  of  a  dwarf-palm  without  any  real 
similarity  of  structure,  belongs  to  the  eastern  districts,  espe- 
cially to  the  great  tract  of  bush  on  the  Caffir  frontier. 

Various  species  of  acacia  are  indigenous  and  much  circum- 
scribed in  their  location  :  the  acacia  horrida,  or  the  white- 
thorned  acacia,  is  very  common  in  the  eastern  districts  and 


264  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

in  Caffirland.  The  acacia  cafra  is  strictly  eastern,  growing 
along  the  margins  of  rivers,  to  which  it  is  a  great  ornament. 
The  acacia  detinens,  or  hook-thorn,  is  almost  peculiar  to 
Zand  valley. 

It  appears  from  the  instances  mentioned,  that  the  vegeta- 
tion in  the  eastern  districts  of  the  colony  differs  from  that  on 
the  western,  yet  many  plants  are  generally  diffused  of  orders 
and  genera  found  only  in  this  part  of  Africa.  Nearly  all  the 
300  species  of  the  fleshy  succulent  tribe  of  mesembryanthe- 
mum,or  Hottentot's  fig;  all  the  oxalis,  or  wood-sorrel  tribe, 
except  three  in  France  and  one  in  America;  every  species 
of  gladiolus,  with  the  exception  of  that  in  the  corn-fields  in 
Italy  and  France ;  ixias  innumerable,  one  with  petals  of  apple- 
green  colour;  geraniums,  especially  the  genus  pelargonium, 
or  stork's  bill,  almost  peculiar  to  this  locality;  many  varie- 
ties of  gnaphalium  and  xeranthemura;  the  brilliant  strelitzia; 
133  species  of  the  house-leek  tribe,  all  fleshy  and  leafless, 
attached  to  the  soil  by  a  single  wiry  root,  and  nourished  from 
the  atmosphere  ;  diosmas  are  widely  scattered  in  great  va- 
riety ;  shrubby  boragines  with  flowers  of  vivid  colours,  and 
orchideaB  with  large  and  showy  blossoms.  The  leguminous 
plants  and  the  crucifers  of  the  Cape  are  peculiar  ;  indeed  all 
the  vegetation  has  a  distinct  character,  and  both  genera  and 
species  are  confined  within  narrower  limits  than  anywhere 
else,  without  any  apparent  cause  to  account  for  a  dispersion 
so  arbitrary. 

Notwithstanding  the  peculiarity  of  character  with  which 
the  botany  of  the  Cape  is  so  distinctly  marked,  it  is  connected 
with  that  of  very  remote  countries  by  particular  plants  ;  for 
example,  of  the  seven  species  of  bramble  which  grow  at  the 
Cape,  one  is  the  common  English  bramble  or  blackberry. 
The  aflSnity  w^ith  New  Holland  is  greater  ;  in  portions  of  the 
two  countries  in  the  same  latitude  there  are  several  genera 
and  species  that  are  identical :  proteas  are  common  to  both, 
so  are  several  genera  of  irideae,  leguminosse,  ficoides,  myr- 
tacese,  Banksias,  diosmas,  and  some  others.  The  botany  of 
the  Cape  is  connected  with  that  of  India,  and  even  that  of 
South  America,  by  a  few  congeners. 

The  vegetation  of  Madagascar,  though  similar  in  many  re- 
spects to  the  floras  of  India  and  Africa,  nevertheless  is  its 
own:  the  brexiaceae  and  chlenacese  are  orders  found  nowhere 
else;  there  are  species  of  bignonia,  cycades,  and  zamias,  a 


FLORA    OF    AUSTRALIA.  265 

few  of  the  mangosteen  tribe,  and  in  the  mountains  some 
heaths.  The  hydrogetan  fenestralis  is  a  singular  aquatic  plant, 
with  leaves  like  the  dried  skeletons  of  leaves,  having  no 
green  fleshy  substance,  and  the  tanghinia  veneniflua,  which 
produces  a  poison  so  deadly  that  its  seeds  are  used  to  exe- 
cute criminals,  and  one  seed  is  sufficient. 

Some  genera  and  species  are  common  and  peculiar  to 
Madagascar,  the  Isle  of  Bourbon,  and  Mauritius;  yet  of  the 
161  known  genera  in  Madagascar  only  54  grow  on  the  other 
two  islands.  The  three  islands  are  rich  in  ferns.  The  pan- 
danus,  or  screw-pine  genus,  abounds  in  Bourbon  and  the 
Mauritius,  where  it  covers  sandy  plains,  sending  off  strong 
aerial  roots  from  the  stem,  which  strike  into  the  ground  and 
protect  the  plant  from  the  violent  winds.  Of  290  genera  in 
Bourbon  and  Mauritius,  196  also  grow  in  India,  though  the 
species  are  different:  there  is  also  some  resemblance  to  the 
vegetation  of  South  Africa,  and  there  is  a  solitary  genus  in 
common  with  America. 

Eight  or  ten  degrees  north  of  Madagascar  lies  the  group 
of  the  Seychelles  Islands,  in  which  are  groves  of  the  pecu- 
liar palm  which  bears  the  double  cocoanut,  or  coco  de  mer, 
the  growth  of  these  islands  only.  lU  gigantic  leaves  are 
employed  in  the  construction  of  houses,  and  other  parts  of 
th^  plant  are  applied  to  various  domestic  purposes. 


FLORA  OF  AUSTRALIA. 

The  interior  of  the  A^ustralian  continent  is  so  little  known, 
that  the  flora  which  has  come  under  observation  is  coniined 
to  a  short  distance  from  the  coast;  but  it  is  of  so  strange  Rnd 
unexampled  a  character,  that  it  might  easily  be  mistaken  for 
the  production  of  another  planet.  Many  entire  orders  of 
plants  are  known  only  in  Australia,  and  the  genera  and  spe- 
cies of  others  that  grow  elsewhere,  assume  new  and  singular 
forms.  Evergreens,  with  hard  narrow  leaves  of  a  sombre, 
melancholy  hue,  are  prevalent,  and  there  are  whole  shadow- 
less forests  of  leafless  trees,  the  foot  stalks  dilated  and  set 
edgewise  on  the  stem  supply  their  place  and  perform  the  func- 
tions of  nutrition  :  their  inverted  position  gives  them  a  sin- 
gular appearance.  Plants  in  other  countries  have  glands  on 
the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  but  in  Australia  there  are  glands 
23 


266  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

on  both  sides  of  these  substitutes  for  leaves,  which  make  them 
dull  and  lustreless,  and  the  changes  of  the  seasons  have  no 
influence  on  the  unvarying  olive-green  of  the  Australian 
forests  ;  even  the  grasses  are  separated  from  the  graminea^  of 
other  countries  by  a  remarkable  rigidity.  Torres  Straits,  only 
50  miles  broad,  separates  this  dry,  sombre  vegetation  from 
the  luxuriant  jungle-clad  shores  of  New  Guinea,  where  deep 
and  dark  forests  are  rich  in  more  than  the  usual  tropical  exu- 
berance— a  more  complete  and  sudden  change  can  hardly  be 
imagined. 

The  peculiarly  Australian  vegetation  is  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  continent  of  New  Holland  distributed  in  distinct 
foci  in  the  same  latitude,  a  circumstance  of  which  the  pro- 
teae  afford  a  remarkable  instance.  Nearly  one-half  of  the 
known  species  of  these  beautiful  shrubs  grow  in  the  parallel 
of  Port  Jackson,  from  which  they  decrease  in  number  both 
to  the  south  and  the  north.  In  that  latitude,  however,  there 
are  twice  as  many  species  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  conti- 
nent as  there  are  on  the  western,  and  four  times  as  many  as 
in  the  centre.  Although  the  proteas  at  both  extremities  of 
the  continent  have  all  the  characters  peculiar  to  Australia, 
yet  those  on  the  eastern  coast  resemble  the  South  American 
species,  while  those  on  the  western  side  have  a  resemblance 
to  African  forms,  and  are  confined  to  the  same  latitudes. 

Species  of  this  genus  are  numerous  in  Van  Diemen's  Land, 
where  they  thrive  at  the  elevation  of  3500  feet,  and  also  on 
the  plains.  The  myrtle  tribe  form  a  conspicuous  feature  in 
Australian  vegetation,  particularly  the  genera  eucalyptus, 
melaleuca,  podocarpus  and  others,  with  splendid  blossoms, 
white,  purple,  yellow,  crimson  :  100  species  of  the  eucalypti, 
most  of  them  large  trees,  grow  in  New  Holland  ;  they  form 
great  forests  in  the  colony  of  Port  Jackson.  The  leafless  aca- 
cias, of  which  there  are  93  species,  are  a  prominent  feature 
in  the  Australian  landscape.  The  leaves,  except  in  very 
young  plants,  are  merely  foliaceous  foot  stalks,  presenting 
their  margin  towards  the  stem,  yet  these  and  the  eucalypti 
are  the  most  leafy  trees  in  the  country.  The  genus  casua- 
rina,  with  its  strange-jointed,  drooping  branches,  called  the 
march  oak,  holds  a  conspicuous  place:  they  are  chiefly  con- 
fined to  the  principal  parallel  of  this  vegetation,  and  produce 
excellent  timber ;  they  grow  also  in  the  Malayan  peninsula 
and  South  Sea  Islands.     The  oxleya  xanthoxyla,  or  yellow 


FLORA    OF    AUSTRALIA. 


267 


wood,  one  of  the  cedar  tribe,  grows  to  great  size,  and  the  po- 
docarpus  asplenifolia  forms  a  new  genus  of  the  cone-bearing 
trees.  Some  of  the  nettle  tribe  grow  15  or  even  20  feet  high. 
The  epacridete,  with  scarlet,  rose,  and  white  blossoms,  sup- 
ply the  place  of  heaths,  which  do  not  exist  here.  The  pur- 
ple-flowering tremandreaB,  the  yellow-flowering  dillenia,  the 
doryanthis  excelsa,  the  most  splendid  of  the  lily  tribe,  24 
feet  high,  with  a  brilliant  crimson  blossom,  the  Banksia,  the 
most  Australian  of  all  the  proteas,  with  zamias  of  new  spe- 
cies, are  all  conspicuous  in  the  vegetation  of  Port  Jackson. 

There  is  a  change  on  the  eastern  coast  of  New  Holland. 
The  castanospermum  Australe  is  so  plentiful  that  it  furnishes 
the  principal  food  of  the  natives  ;  a  caper-tree  of  grotesque 
form,  having  the  colossal  dimensions  of  the  Senegal  boabab, 
and  extraordinary  trees  of  the  fig  genus,  characterize  this 
region.  It  sometimes  occurs,  when  the  seeds  of  these  fig- 
trees  are  deposited  by  birds  on  the  iron-bark  tree,  or  euca- 
lyptus resinifera,  that  they  vegetate  and  inclose  the  trunk  of 
the  tree  entirely  with  their  roots,  whence  they  send  off 
enormous  lateral  branches,  which  so  completely  envelop  the 
tree,  that  at  last  its  top  alone  is  visible  in  the  centre  of  the 
fig-tree,  at  the  height  of  70  or  80  feet.  The  pandanus  genus 
flourishes  within  the  influence  of  the  sea-air.  There  are  only 
six  species  of  palms,  equally  local  in  their  habitation  as  else- 
where, not  one  of  which  grows  on  the  west  side  of  the  con- 
tinent. The  araucaria  excelsa,  or  Norfolk  Island  pine,  pro- 
duces the  best  timber  of  any  tree  in  this  part  of  Australia  : 
it  extends  from  the  parallel  of  29°  on  the  east  coasl  towards 
the  equator,  and  grows  over  an  area  of  900  square  miles, 
including  New  Norfolk,  New  Caledonia,  and  other  islands, 
some  of  which  have  no  other  timber  tree:  it  is  supposed  to 
exist  only  within  the  influence  of  the  sea.  The  asphodelia 
abound  and  extend  to  the  southern  extremity  of  Van  Die- 
men's  Land. 

The  south-western  districts  of  New  Holland  exhibit  an- 
other focus  of  vegetation,  less  rich  in  species  than  that  of 
Port  Jackson,  but  not  less  peculiar.  The  Kingia  Australis, 
or  grass-tree,  rises  solitary  on  the  sandy  plains,  with  bare 
blackened  trunks  as  if  scathed  by  lightning,  and  tufts  o; 
long  grassy  leaves  at  their  extremities;  Banksias,  particu- 
larly the  kind  called  wild  honeysuckle,  are  numerous  ;  the 
stylidum,  whose  blossoms  are  even  more  irritable  than  the 


268  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

leaves  of  the  sensitive  mimosa,  and  plants  with  dry,  ever- 
lasting blossom,  characterize  the  flora  of  these  districts. 
The  greater  part  of  the  southern  vegetation  vanishes  on  the 
northern  coasts  of  the  continent,  and  what  remains  is  min- 
gled w^ith  the  cabbage-palm,  various  species  of  the  nutmeg 
tribe,  sandal- wood,  and  other  Malayan  forms,  a  circumstance 
that  may  hereafter  be  of  importance  to  our  colonists. 

Orchideae,  chiefly  terrestrial,  are  in  great  variety  in  the 
extratropical  regions  of  New  Holland,  and  the  grasses  amount 
to  one-tburth  of  the  raonocotyledonous  plants.  Reeds  of 
gigantic  size  form  forests  in  the  marshes,  and  kangaroo-grass 
covers  the  plains. 

Beautiful  and  varied  as  the  flora  is.  New  Holland  is  by 
no  means  luxuriant  in  vegetation.  There  is  little  appear- 
ance of  verdure,  the  foliage  is  poor,  the  forests  often  shade- 
less,  and  the  grass  thin  ;  but  in  many  valleys  of  the  moun- 
tains, and  even  on  some  parts  of  the  plains,  the  vegetation 
is  vigorous.  It  is  not  the  least  remarkable  circumstance  in 
this  extraordinary  flora,  that,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
berries,  there  is  no  edible  fruit,  grain,  or  vegetable  indige- 
nous either  in  New  Holland  or  Van  Diemen's  Land. 

The  plants  of  New  Holland  prevail  in  every  part  of  Van 
Diemen's  Land  ;  yet  the  coldness  of  the  climate  and  the 
height  of  the  mountains  permit  genera  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere to  be  mixed  with  the  vegetation  of  the  country. 
Butter-cups,  anemonies,  and  polygonums  of  peculiar  species 
grow  on  the  mountain-tops,  together  with  proteas  and  other 
Australian  plants.  The  plains  glow  with  the  warm  golden 
flowers  of  the  black  wattle,  a  mimosa  emblematic  of  the 
island,  and  with  the  equally  bright  and  orange  blossom  of 
the  gorse,  which  perfumes  the  whole  atmosphere.  Only 
one  tree-fern  grows  in  this  country  :  it  rises  20  feet  to  the 
base  of  the  fronds,  which  spread  into  an  elegant  top,  pro- 
ducing a  shadow  gloomy  as  night-fall,  and  there  are  150  spe- 
cies of  orchis.  The  southern  extremities  both  of  New  Hol- 
land and  Van  Diemen's  Land  are  characterized  by  the  pre- 
valence of  evergreen  plants  :  but  the  trees  here,  as  w^ell  as 
in  the  other  parts  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  do  not  shed 
their  leaves  periodically  as  with  us. 

The  botany  of  New  Zealand  appears  to  be  intimately 
allied  to  that  of  New  Holland,  South  America,  and  South 
Africa,  but  chiefly  to  that  of  New  Holland.     Noble  trees 


FLORA    OF    NEW    ZEALAND.  269 

form   impenetrable  forests,  sixty  of  which   yield   the  finest 
timber,  and   many  are  of  kinds  to  which  we   have  nothing 
similar.     Here  there  are  no  representatives  of  our  oak,  birch, 
or  willow,  but  five  species  of  beech  and  ten  of  pine  have 
been  discovered  that  are  peculiar  to  the  country.     They  are 
all  alpine,  and   only  descend   to  the  level   of  the  sea  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  islands.     The  pines  of  the  southern 
hemisphere  are  more  local  than  in  the  northern  ;  of  the  ten 
species  peculiar  to  New  Zealand  it  is  not  certain  that  more 
than  two  or  three  are  found  in  the  middle  island,  or  that  any 
of  them  grow  south  of  the  40th  parallel.     The  Kauri  pine, 
or  dammara  australis,  is  indigenous  in  all  the  three  islands, 
but  it  is  the  only  cone-bearing  tree  in  North  Island,  where 
it  grows  in  hilly  situations  near  the  sea,  shooting  up  with  a 
clean  stem  60  or  90  feet,  sometimes  30  feet  in  diameter,  with 
a  spreading  but  thin  top,  and    generally  has  a  quantity  of 
transparent  yellow  resin  imbedded  at  its  base.     This  fine 
tree  does  not  grow  beyond  the  38°  S.  lat.     The  metrosi- 
deros  tomentosa,  with  rich  crimson  blossoms,  is  one  of  the 
greatest    ornaments    of    the   forests,    and    the    metrosideros 
robusta  the  most  singular.     It  grows  to  a  very  great  size, 
and  sends  shoots  from  its  trunk  and  branches  to  the  ground, 
which  become  so  massive  that  they  support  the  old  stem, 
which  to  all  appearance  loses  its  vitality  ;  it  is  in  fact  an 
enormous  epiphyte,  growing  to  and    not  from   the  ground. 
Many  of  the  smaller  trees  are  of  the  laurel  tribe,  with  poi- 
sonous berries.    Besides  there  is  the  cabbage  palm,  the  areca 
sapida,  elder,  the  fuchsia  excortica,  and  other  shrubs.      Be- 
fore New  Zealand  w^as  colonized,  the  natives  lived  chiefiy 
on  the  roots  of  the  edible  fern,  pteris  esculenta,  with  which 
the  country  is  densely  covered,  mixed   with   a  shrub   that 
grows  like  a  cypress,  and  the  tea-plant,  which  is  a  kind  of 
myrtle  whose  berries  afford  an  intoxicating  liquor.     More 
than  90  species  of  fern  are  natives  of  these  islands,  some  of 
which   are   arborescent   and   40   feet  high  ;  the  country  is 
chiefly  covered  with  these  and  with  the  New  Zealand  flax, 
phormium  tenax,  which  grows  abundantly  both  on  the  moun- 
tains and  plains. 

In  Norfolk  Island  152  species  of  plants  are  already  known, 

and  many,  no  doubt,  are  yet  to  be  discovered.     The  arau- 

caria  excelsa  and  some  palms  are  indigenous,  and  there  are 

three  times  as  many  ferns  as  of  all  the  other  plants  together. 

23* 


270  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  multitude  of  islands  of  Polynesia  constitute  a  botani- 
cal region  apart  from  all  others,  though  it  is  but  little  varied, 
and  characterized  principally  by  the  number  of  syngenesious 
plants  with  arborescent  forms  and  tree-ferns.  There  are  50 
varieties  of  the  bread-fruit,  which  produce  three  or  four  crops 
in  the  year,  and  supply  the  natives  with  food,  clothing,  and 
timber  ;  the  cocoa-nut  palm  and  the  banana  are  on  all  the 
islands,  and  the  pandanus,  which  thrives  only  when  exposed 
to  the  sea-air.  The  tacca  pinnatifida  yields  arrow-root  ;  an 
intoxicating  liquor  is  made  from  the  fruit  of  one  of  the  dra- 
caina  tribe,  and  the  inner  bark  of  the  morus  papyrifera  is 
manufactured  into  cloth.  Besides  the  cocoa-nut  palm  and 
pandanus,  various  trees  grow  on  the  coral  islands,  among 
others  the  fragrant  suriana  and  the  sweet-scented  Tourne- 
fortia. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

AMERICAN  VEGETATION FLORA  OF  NORTH,  CENTRAL,  AND 

SOUTH  AMERICA  ANTARCTIC  FLORA  MARINE  VEGETA- 
TION. 

From  similarity  of  physical  circumstances  the  arctic  flora  of 
America  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  that  of  the  northern 
regions  of  Europe  and  Asia.  This  botanical  district  com- 
prises Greenland,  and  extends  considerably  to  the  south  of 
the  arctic  circle,  especially  at  the  eastern  and  western  ends 
of  the  continent,  where  it  reaches  the  60th  parallel  of  N. 
lat.,  and  even  more  ;  it  is  continued  along  the  tops  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  almost  to  Mexico,  and  it  re-appears  on 
the  White  Mountains  and  a  few  other  parts  of  the  AUegha- 
nies. 

Greenland  has  a  much  more  arctic  flora  than  Iceland  ;  the 
valleys  are  entirely  covered  with  mosses  and  marsh  plants, 
and  the  gloomy  rocks  are  cased  in  sombre  lichens  that  grow 
under  the  snow,  and  the  grasses  on  the  pasture-grounds  that 
line  the  fiords  are  nearly  four  times  less  varied  than  those  of 
Iceland.  In  some  sheltered  spots  the  service-tree  bears 
fruit,  and  birches  grow  to  the  height  of  a  few  feet;  but  lig- 
neous plants  in  general  trail  on  the  ground. 


FLORA  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.  271 

The  arctic  flora  of  America  has  much  the  same  character 
with  those  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  many  species  are  com- 
mon to  all  ;  still  more  are  representative,  but  there  is  a  dif- 
ference in  the  vegetation  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  con- 
tinent ;  there  are  30  species  in  the  east  and  20  in  the  west 
end  which  grow  nowhere  else.  The  sameness  of  character 
chano^es  with  the  barren  treeless  lands  at  the  verge  of  the 
Arctic  region,  and  the  distribution  of  plants  varies  both  with 
the  latitude  and  the  longitude.  Taking  a  broad  view  of  the 
botanical  districts  of  North  America,  there  are  two  woody- 
regions,  one  on  the  eastern,  the  other  on  the  western  side  of 
the  continent,  separated  by  a  region  of  prairies  where  grasses 
and  herbaceous  plants  predominate.  The  vegetation  of 
these  three  parts,  so  dissimilar,  varies  with  the  latitude,  but 
not  after  the  same  law  as  in  Europe,  for  the  winter  is  much 
colder,  and  the  summer  warmer,  on  the  eastern  coasts  of 
America  than  on  the  western  coast  of  Europe,  owing  in  a 
great  measure  to  the  prevalence  of  westerly  winds  which 
brmg  cold  and  damp  to  our  shores. 

Boundless  forests  of  black  and  white  spruce  with  an 
undergrowth  of  reindeer  moss  cover  the  country  south  of  the 
Arctic  region,  which  are  afterwards  mixed  with  other  trees  ; 
gooseberries,  strawberries,  currants,  and  some  other  plants 
thrive  there.  There  are  vast  forests  in  Canada  of  pines, 
oak,  ash,  hiccory,  red  beech,  birch,  the  lofty  Canadian  pop- 
lar, sometimes  100  feet  high  and  36  feet  in  circumference, 
and  sugar  maple  ;  the  prevailing  plants  are  kalmias,  azaleas, 
and  asters,  the  former  vernal,  the  latter  autumnal  ;  solidagos 
and  asters  are  the  most  characteristic  plants  of  this  region. 

The  splendour  of  the  North  American  flora  is  displayed 
in  the  United  States  ;  the  American  sycamore,  chestnut, 
black  walnut,  hiccory,  white  cedar,  wild  cherry,  red  birch, 
locust-tree,  tulip-tree  or  liriodendron,  the  glory  of  American 
forests,  liquid-ambar,  oak,  ash,  pine-trees  of  many  species, 
grow  luxuriantly  with  an  undergrowth  of  rhododendrons,  aza- 
leas, andromedas,  gerardias,  calycanthus,  hydrangea,  and 
many  more  of  woody  texture,  with  an  infinite  variety  of 
herbaceous  and  climbing  plants. 

The  vegetation  is  different  on  the  two  sides  of  the  Alle- 
ghany Mountains  ;  the  locust-tree,  Canadianpoplar,  hibiscus, 
and  hydrangea,  are  most  common  on  the  west  side  :  the 
American  chestnut  and   kalmias  are   so   numerous   on   the 


272  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Atlantic  side,  as  to  give  a  distinctive  character  to  the  flora  , 
here  too  aquatic  plants  are  more  frequent,  among  these  the 
saracenia  or  pitcher- plant,  singular  in  form,  with  leaves  like 
pitchers  covered  with  a  lid,  half-full  of  water. 

The  autumnal  tints  of  the  forests  in  the  middle  States  are 
beautiful  and  of  endless  variety  ;  the  dark  leaves  of  the 
evergreen  pine,  the  red  foliage  of  the  maple,  the  yellow 
beech,  the  scarlet  oak,  and  purple  nyssa,  with  all  their  inter- 
mediate tints,  ever  changing  with  the  light  and  distance, 
produce  an  effect  at  sunset  that  would  astonish  the  native  of 
a  country  with  a  more  sober-coloured  flora  under  a  more 
cloudy  sky. 

In  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  the  southern  States  the  vege- 
tation assumes  a  different  aspect,  though  many  plants  of  more 
northern  districts  are  mixed  with  it.  Trees  and  shrubs  here 
are  remarkable  for  broad  shining  leaves  and  splendid  blos- 
soms, as  the  gleditschia,  catalpa,  hibiscus,  and  all  the  family 
of  magnolias,  which  are  natives  of  the  country,  excepting  a 
very  few  found  in  Asia  and  the  Indian  islands.  They  are 
the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  flora  from  Virginia  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains :  the  magnolia  grandiflora  and  the  tulip-tree  are  the 
most  splendid  specimens  of  this  race  of  plants  ;  the  latter  is 
often  120  feet  high.  The  long-leaved  pitch-pine,  one  of 
the  most  picturesque  of  trees,  covers  an  arid  soil  on  the  coast 
of  the  Atlantic  of  60,000  square  miles.  The  swamps  so 
common  in  the  southern  States  are  clothed  with  gigantic 
deciduous  cypress,  the  aquatic  oak,  swampy  hiccory,  with 
the  magnificent  nelumbeum  luteum  and  other  aquatics,  and 
among  the  innumerable  herbaceous  plants  the  singular  dionsea 
muscipula,  or  American  fly-trap  ;  the  trap  is  formed  by  two 
opposite  leaves,  covered  with  spines  so  irritable,  that  it  in- 
stantly closes  upon  the  insect  that  has  come  to  suck  its  sweet 
juice.  This  magnolia  region  corresponds  in  latitude  with 
the  southern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  the  climate  is 
hotter  and  more  humid,  in  consequence  of  which  there  is  a 
considerable  number  of  Mexican  plants.  A  few  dwarf-palms 
appear  among  the  magnolias,  and  the  forests  in  Florida  and 
Alabama  are  covered  with  tillandsia  usneoides,  an  air-plant, 
which  hanofs  from  the  boughs. 

ien  or  twelve  species  ot  grass  cover  the  extensive  prairies 
or  steppes  of  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi.     The  forms  of 


FLORA  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.  273 

the  Tartarian  steppes  appear  to  the  north  in  the  centaurea, 
artemisia,  astragali,  but  the  dahlias,  Oenotheras,  with  many 
more,  are  their  own.  The  helianthus  and  coreopsis,  mixed 
with  some  European  genera,  mark  the  middle  regions:  and 
in  the  south  towards  the  Rocky  Mountains,  Clarkias  and 
Bartonias  are  mixed  with  the  Mexican  genera  of  cactus  and 
yucca.  The  western  forest  is  less  extensive  and  less  varied 
than  the  eastern,  but  the  trees  are  larger.  This  flora  in  high 
latitudes  is  but  little  known  ;  the  thuya  gigantea  on  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  is  200  feet 
high.  Claytonias  and  currants,  with  plants  of  northern 
Asia,  are  found  here. 

Farther  south  the  pinus  Lambertiana  is  another  specimen 
of  the  stupendous  trees  of  this  flora  ;  seven  species  of  it  are 
indigenous  in  California,  some  of  which  have  measured  200, 
and  even  300  feet  high,  and  SO  in  circumference.  Captain 
Belcher,  in  his  '  Voyage  on  the  Pacific,'  mentions  having 
measured  an  oak  27  feet  in  circumference,  and  another  18 
feet  girth  at  the  height  of  60  feet  from  the  ground,  before 
the  branches  began  to  spread.  This  is  the  native  soil  of 
the  currant-bushes  with  red  and  yellow  blossoms,  of  many 
varieties  of  lupins,  peonies,  poppies,  and  other  herbaceous 
plants  so  ornamental  in  our  gardens. 

There  are  332  genera  of  plants  peculiar  to  North  America, 
exclusive  of  Mexico,  but  no  family  of  any  great  extent  has 
yet  been  discovered  there.  About  160  large  trees  yield  ex- 
cellent timber  ;  the  wood  of  the  pine-trees  of  the  eastern 
forests  is  of  inferior  quality  to  that  grown  on  the  other  side 
of  the  continent,  and  both  appear  to  be  less  valuable  than 
the  pine-wood  of  Europe,  which  is  best  when  produced  in  a 
cold  climate.  The  pinus  cembra  and  the  pinus  uncinata  are 
the  most  esteemed  of  the  Old  World. 

The  native  fruit  of  North  America  are  mostly  of  the  nut- 
kind,  and  there  are  many  of  these,  to  which  may  be  added 
the  Florida  orange,  the  chicasa  plum,  the  papaw,  the  banana, 
the  red  mulberry,  and  the  plum-like  fruit  of  the  persimmon. 
There  are  seven  species  of  wild  grapes,  but  good  wine  has 
not  hitherto  been  produced.  Although  America  has  con- 
tributed so  much  to  the  ornament  of  our  pleasure-grounds 
and  gardens,  yet  there  is  not  one  North  American  plant 
which  has  become  an  object  of  extensive  cultivation,  while 
America  has  borrowed  largely  from  other  parts  of  the  globe  ; 


274  PHYSICAL    GEOGKAPHY. 

the  grapes  cultivated  in  North  America  are  European  ;  to- 
bacco, Indian  corn,  and  many  others  of  the  utmost  commer- 
cial value  are  strangers  to  the  soil,  having  been  introduced 
by  the  earliest  inhabitants  from  Mexico  and  South  America, 
which  have  contributed  much  more  to  general  utility. 


MEXICAN  FLORA. 

Mexico  unites  the  vegetation  of  North  and  South  America, 
though  it  resembles  that  of  the  latter  more  nearly.  Whole 
provinces  on  the  table-land  and  mountains  produce  alpine 
plants,  oaks,  chestnuts,  and  pines  spontaneously.  The  edible 
rooted  nasturtium  and  the  tuberous-rooted  sorrel  are  pecu- 
liar. The  cheirostemon,  or  hand-tree,  so  named  from  the 
resemblance  its  stamens  bear  to  the  foot  of  a  bird  of  prey, 
grows  here,  and  also  in  the  Guatimala  forests. 

The  low-lands  of  Mexico  and  Central  America  have  a 
very  rich  flora,  consisting  of  many  orders  and  genera  pecu- 
liar to  them,  and  species  without  number,  a  great  portion  of 
which  are  unknown.  The  hymenea  courbaril,  from  which 
the  copal  of  Mexico  is  obtained,  logw^ood,  mahogany,  and 
many  other  large  trees,  valuable  for  their  timber,  grow  in  the 
forests;  sugar-cane, tobacco,  indigo,  aloe, yam,  capsicum,  and 
yucca  are  indigenous  in  Mexico  and  Central  America.  It  is 
the  native  region  of  the  melastomas,  of  which  620  species 
grow  here  ;  almost  all  the  pepper  tribe,  the  passiflorae,  the  orna- 
ment and  pride  of  tropical  America  and  the  West  Indian 
islands,  begin  to  be  numerous  in  these  regions.  The  pine- 
apple is  entirely  American,  growing  in  the  woods  and  sa- 
vannahs :  it  has  been  carried  to  the  West  Indies,  to  the 
East  Indies  and  China,  and  is  naturalized  in  all.  This 
country  has  also  produced  the  cherimoya,  said  to  be  the 
most  exquisite  of  fruit.  Hot  arid  tracts  are  covered  with 
the  cactus  tribe,  a  plant  of  Central  America  and  Mexico, 
which  is  more  widely  dispersed  than  the  anana  :  some  species 
bear  a  considerable  degree  of  cold.  They  are  social  plants, 
inhabiting  sandy  plains  in  thickets,  and  of  many  species  : 
their  forms  are  various,  and  their  blossoms  beautiful.  A 
few  occur  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  tropics,  to  the 
north  and  the  south.  The  night-flowering  cereus  grows  in 
all  its  beauty  in  the  arid  parts  of  Chili,  fdling  the  night  air 


FLORA    OF    MEXICO.  275 

with  its  perfume.  The  cactus  opuntia  grows  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains;  and  Sir  George  Back  found  a  small  island  in 
the  Lake  of  the  Woods  covered  with  it.  This  species  has 
been  brought  to  Europe,  and  now  grows  a  common  weed  on 
the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  Mexico,  the  cochineal 
insect  was  collected  from  the  cactus  coccinellifer  long  before 
the  Spanish  conquest.  There  are  large  fields  of  American 
aloe,  from  which  a  liquor  called  pulque,  and  also  an  ardent 
spirit,  are  made.  The  ancient  Mexicans  made  their  hemp  from 
this  plant,  and  also  their  paper  ;  and  they  used  its  thorns 
for  nails.  The  forests  of  Panama  contain  at  least  97  different 
kinds  of  trees,  w^iich  grow  luxuriantly  in  a  climate  where 
the  torrents  of  rain  are  so  favourable  to  vegetation,  and  so 
unfavourable  to  life  that  the  tainted  air  is  deadly  even  to 
animals.  The  flora  of  each  West  Indian  island  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  continent  opposite  to  it.  The  myrtus  pimento, 
producing  alspice,  is  common  in  the  hills  :  cloves,  nutmeg, 
custard-apple,  guava,  mango,  the  avocado  pear,  and  tobacco 
are  indigenous  ;  the  cabbage-palm  grows  to  the  height  of 
200  feet  ;  the  palma-real  of  Cuba  is  the  most  majestic  of 
that  noble  family  ;  and  in  Barbadoes  there  still  exists  a  tree, 
but  wearing  out  rapiilly,  which  has  given  the  island  its 
name. 

FLORA  OF  TROPICAL  AMERICA. 

Although  the  flora  of  tropical  America  is  better  known 
than  that  of  Asia  or  Africa,  there  must  still  be  thousands  of 
plants  of  which  we  have  no  knowledge:  and  those  which 
have  come  under  observation  are  so  varied  and  so  nume- 
rous, that  it  is  not  possible  to  convey  an  idea  of  the  pecu- 
liarities of  this  vegetation,  or  of  the  extent  and  richness  of 
its  woodlands.  The  upper  Orinoco  flows  for  some  hundred 
miles  chiefly  through  forests  ;  and  the  silvas  of  the  Amazons 
are  six  times  the  size  of  France.  In  these  the  trees  are 
colossal,  and  the  vegetation  so  matted  together  by  under- 
wood, creeping  and  parasitical  plants,  that  the  sun's  rays  can 
scarcely  penetrate  the  dense  foliage. 

These  extensive  forests  are  by  no  means  uniform  ;  they 
differ  on  each  side  of  the  equator,  though  climate  and  other  cir- 
cumstances are  the  same.  Venezuela,  Guiana,  the  Amazons, 
and  Brazil,  are  each  the  centre  of  a  peculiar  flora.    So  partial 


276  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

is  this  splendid  vegetation,  that  almost  each  tributary  of  the 
great  rivers  has  a  flora  of  its  own,  particular  families  of 
plants  are  so  restricted  in  their  localities,  and  predominate 
so  exclusively  where  they  occur,  that  they  change  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  forest.  Thus  from  the  prevalence  of  the 
orders  laurinse,  sapotacese,  and  others,  which  have  leathery, 
shining,  and  entire  leaves,  the  forests  through  which  the  Rio 
Negro,  Cassiquiare,  and  Tuamine  tlow,  differ  in  aspect  from 
those  of  the  other  affluents  of  the  Amazons.  Even  the 
grassy  Jhmos,  so  uniform  in  appearance,  have  their  centres 
of  vegetation  ;  and  only  agree  with  the  pampas  of  Buenos 
Ayres  in  being  covered  with  grass  and  herbs.  In  these 
tropical  regions  the  flora  varies  wnth  the  altitude  also.  On 
the  Andes,  almost  at  the  limit  of  vegetation,  the  ground  is 
covered  with  purple,  azure,  and  scarlet  gentians,  drabas, 
alchemillas,  and  many  other  brilliantly  coloured  alpine  plants. 
This  zone  is  followed  by  thickets  of  coriaceous-leaved  plants, 
in  perpetual  bloom  and  verdure  ;  and  then  come  the  forest- 
trees.  Arborescent  ferns  ascend  to  7000  feet ;  the  cotFee- 
tree  and  palms  to  5000  ;  and  neither  indigo  nor  cocoa  can 
be  cultivated  lower  than  2000. 

Many  parts  of  the  coasts  of  Venezuela  and  Guiana  are 
rendered  pestilential  by  the  effluvia  of  the  mangrove,  avi- 
cenna,  and  the  manchineel,  one  of  the  euphorbia  family, 
consisting  of  562  species  in  tropical  America,  all  having 
milky  juice,  deleterious  in  the  greater  number.  The  well- 
known  poison  curara  is  prepared  by  the  Indians  of  Guiana 
from  the  fruit  and  bark  of  the  berthoUetia,  of  the  order 
strychneffi,  than  which  nature  has  probably  produced  no 
plants  more  deadly.  The  oiirari  is  a  creeping  plant  which 
yields  the  deadly  wourali,  the  powerful  eflfect  of  which  was 
proved  by  Mr.  Waterton's  experiments. 

The  cinchona,  or  true  bark-tree,  grows  only  on  the  Cor- 
dilleras of  the  Andes.  Medicinal  qualities  exist  in  other 
plants  of  different  genera  in  Guiana,  as  the  cusparia  carony, 
which  produces  Angustura  bark,  and  others  with  similar 
properties.  The  sa[)indus  saponaria,  or  soap-tree,  is  used 
by  the  natives  for  washing.  Capsicum,  vanilla,  the  hoya, 
or  incense  plant,  the  dipterix  odorat,  whose  fruit  is  the 
tonqua-bean,  and  the  casada  or  mandioc,  are  natives  of  the 
country.  The  cow-tree,  almost  confined  to  the  Cordillera 
of  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  yields  such   abundance  of  nutri- 


FLORA    OF    TROPICAL    AMERICA.  277 

tious  milky  juice  that  it  is  carried  in  pails  like  milk  from  the 
cow.  The  chocolate-palm,  the  cacao-shrub,  fruit  of  the  most 
excellent  flavour,  plants  yielding  balsam,  resin,  and  gum, 
are  numerous  in  the  tropical  regions.  There  the  laurel 
tribe  assume  the  character  of  majestic  trees  ;  some  are  so 
rich  in  oil,  that  it  gushes  from  a  wound  in  the  bark.  One 
of  these  laurels  produces  the  essential  oil  which  dissolves 
caoutchouc,  or  Indian  rubber,  used  in  rendering  cloth  water- 
proof. 

Plantains  of  gigantic  size  form  large  forests  ;  but  pahns  are 
the  most  numerous  and  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  trees  in 
these  countries.  There  are  90  species  of  them  ;  and  they  are 
so  local  that  a  change  takes  place  every  50  miles.  They  are 
the  greatest  ornament  of  the  upper  Orinoco. 

The  llanos  of  Venezuela  and  Guiana  are  covered  with  tall 
grass,  mixed  with  lilies  and  other  bulbous  flowers,  the  sen- 
sitive mimosa,  and  pahns  constantly  varying  in  species. 

No  language  can  describe  the  glory  of  tiie  forests  of  the 
Amazons  and  Brazil,  the  endless  variety  of  form,  the  con- 
trasts of  colour  and  size:  there  even  the  largest  trees  bear 
brilliant  blossoms;  scarlet,  purple,  blue,  rose  colour,  and 
golden  yellow,  are  blended  with  every  possible  shade  of 
green.  Majestic  trees,  as  the  bombax  ceiba,  the  dark-leaved 
mora  with  its  white  blossoms,  the  fig,  cashew  and  mimosa 
tribes,  which  are  here  of  unwonted  dimensions,  and  a  thou- 
sand other  giants  of  the  forest,  are  contrasted  with  the  grace- 
ful palm,  the  delicate  acacia,  reeds  of  a  hundred  feet  high, 
grasses  of  40,  and  tree-ferns  in  myriads.  Passiflorea^  and 
slender  creepers  twine  round  the  lower  plants,  while  others 
as  thick  as  cables  climb  the  lofty  trees,  drop  again  to  the 
ground,  rise  anew  and  stretch  from  bough  to  bough,  wreathed 
whh  their  own  leaves  and  flowers,  and  studded  with  the 
vividly  coloured  blossoms  of  the  orchidea?.  An  impenetra- 
ble and  everlasting  vegetation  covers  the  ground  ;  decay  and 
death  are  concealed  by  the  exuberance  of  life  ;  the  trees  are 
loaded  with  parasites  while  alive ;  they  become  masses  of 
living  plants  w^hen  they  die. 

One  twenty-ninth  part  of  the  flowering  plants  of  the  Bra- 
zilian forests  are  of  the  coffea  tribe,  and  the  rose-coloured  and 
yellow-flowering  bignonias  are  among  their  greatest  orna- 
ments, where  all  is  grace  and  beauty.  Thousands  of  herbs 
and  trees  must  still  be  undescribed,  where  each  stream  has 
24 


278  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

its  own  vegetation.  In  those  parts  of  Brazil  less  favoured 
by  nature  the  forests  consist  of  stunted  deciduous  trees,  and 
the  boundless  plains  have  grasses,  interspersed  with  myrtles 
and  other  shrubs. 

The  forests  of  Paraguay  and  Vermejo,  in  La  Plata,  are  al- 
most as  rich  as  those  of  the  tropics.  Noble  trees  furnish  tim- 
ber and  fruit  ;  the  algaroba,  a  kind  of  acacia,  produces  clus- 
ters of  a  bean,  of  which  the  Indians  make  bread,  and  also  a 
strong  fermented  liquor;  the  palm  and  cinchona  grow  there; 
and  the  Yerba-mate,  the  leaves  of  which  are  universally  used 
as  tea  in  South  America,  and  were  in  use  before  the  Spanish 
conquest. 

The  sandy  deserts  towards  the  mountains  are  the  land  of 
the  aloe  and  cactus  in  all  their  varieties.  The  fibres  of  the 
aloe  are  made  into  cordage  by  the  Indians,  for  fishing- nets 
and  other  uses,  and  the  juice  affords  them  drink.  Some 
larger  species  of  cactus  give  durable  wood  ;  and  the  cochineal 
insect,  which  feeds  on  them,  is  a  valuable  article  of  commerce. 

Grass,  clover,  and  the  domicileii  European  and  African 
thistles,  with  a  solitary  ombu  at  wide  intervals,  are  the  un- 
varying features  of  the  pampas  ;  and  thorny  stunted  bushes, 
characteristic  of  all  deserts,  are  the  only  vegetation  of  the 
Patagonian  shingle.  But  on  the  mountain  valleys  m  the  far 
south  may  be  seen  the  winter's-bark,  arbutus,  new  species  of 
beech-trees,  stunted  berberries  and  misodendrons,  which  are 
singular  kinds  of  parasitical  plants. 

Larcfe  ibrests  of  araucaria  imbricata  o;row"  in  the  Andes  of 
Chili  and  Patagonia.  This  tall  and  handsome  pine,  with 
cones  the  size  of  a  man's  heatl,  supplies  the  natives  with  a 
great  part  of  their  Ibod.  It  is  said  that  the  fruit  of  one  large 
tree  will  maintain  eighteen  persons  for  a  year. 

Nothing  grows  under  these  great  forests  ;  and  when  acci- 
dentally burnt  down  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  Patagonia, 
they  never  rise  again,  but  the  ground  they  grew  on  is  soon 
covered  with  an  impenetrable  bushw^ood  of  dw^arf  oak.  In 
Chili  the  violently  stinging  loasa  appears  first  in  these  burnt 
places,  bushes  grow^  afterwards,  and  then  comes  a  tree  grass, 
18  feet  high,  of  which  the  Indians  make  their  huts.  The 
new^  vegetation  that  follows  the  burning  of  primeval  forests 
is  quite  unaccountable.  The  ancient  and  undisturbed  forests 
of  Pennsylvania  have  no  undergrow^th,  and  when  burnt  down 
they  are  succeeded  by  a  thick  growth  of  rhododendrons. 


ANTARCTIC    FLORA.  279 

The  southern  coasts  of  Chili  are  very  barren,  and  all  plants 
existing  there,  even  the  herbaceous,  have  a  tendency  to  as- 
sume a  hard  knotty  texture.  The  stem  of  the  wild  potato, 
which  is  indigenous,  becomes  woody  and  bristly,  as  it  grows 
old.  It  is  a  native  of  the  sea  strand,  and  is  never  found 
more  than  400  feet  above  it.  In  its  wild  state  the  root  is 
small  and  bitter;  it  is  one  of  many  instances  of  the  inlluence 
of  cultivation  in  rendering  unpromising  plants  useful  to  man. 

Although  the  coast  is  barren,  and  the  flora,  at  an  elevation 
of  9000  feet  on  the  Chilian  Andes,  almost  identical  with  that 
of  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  yet  the  climate  is  so  mild  in  some 
valleys,  especially  that  of  Antuco,  that  the  vegetation  is  serai- 
tropical.  In  it  broad-leaved  and  bright-coloured  plants, 
and  the  most  fragrant  and  brilliant  orchidese,  are  mixed  with 
the  usual  alpine  genera.  Dr.  Poeppig  says,  that  whatever 
South  Africa  or  New  Holland  can  boast  of  in  beauty,  in  va- 
riety of  form,  or  brilliancy  of  colour,  is  rivalled  by  the  flora 
in  the  highest  zone  in  this  part  of  the  Andes,  even  up  to  the 
region  of  perpetual  snow  ;  and,  indeed,  it  bears  a  strong  ana- 
locry  to  the  vegetation  of  both  these  countries. 

The  humidity  or  dryness  of  the  prevaihng  winds  makes  an 
immense  difference  in  the  character  of  the  countries  on  each 
side  of  the  Andes.  In  Peru  they  are  bare  of  plants  on  the 
western  side,  while  on  the  east  there  is  exuberant  vegeta- 
tion ;  but  it  gradually  disappears  with  the  increasing  height, 
till  at  an  elevation  of  13,782  feet  arborescent  plants  vanish, 
and  alpine  races,  of  the  most  vivid  beauty,  succeed  ;  which, 
in  their  turn,  give  place  to  the  grasses  at  the  height  of  16,138 
feet.  Above  these,  in  the  dreary  plains  of  Bombon,  and 
other  lands  of  the  same  altitude,  even  the  thinly-scattered 
mosses  are  sickly  ;  anl  at  the  height  of  21,878  feet  the  snow- 
lichen  forms  the  last  show  of  vegetable  life  ;  confirming  the 
observation  of  Don  Ulloa,  that  the  produce  of  the  soil  is  the 
thermometer  of  Peru. 


ANTARCTIC  FLORA. 

Tierra  del  Fuego  and  Kerguelen's  Islands  are  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  antarctic  lands,  which  are  scattered  round 
the  south  pole  at  immense  distances  from  one  another.  On 
these  the  vegetation  decreases  as  the  latitude  increases,  till 


280  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

at  length  utter  desolation  prevails  ;  not  a  lichen  covers  the 
dreary  storm-beaten  rocks  ;  not  a  sea- weed  lives  in  the  gelid 
waves.  In  the  arctic  regions,  on  the  contrary,  no  land  has 
yet  been  discovered  that  is  entirely  destitute  of  vegetable  life. 
This  remarkable  difference  does  not  so  much  depend  on  a 
greater  degree  of  cold  in  winter  as  on  the  want  of  warmth 
in  summer.  In  the  high  northern  latitudes,  the  power  of  the 
summer  sun  is  so  great  as  to  melt  the  pitch  between  the 
planks  of  the  vessels ;  while  in  corresponding  southern  lati- 
tudes Fahrenheit's  thermometer  does  not  rise  above  14°  at 
noon,  at  a  season  corresponding  to  our  August.  The  perpe- 
tual snow  comes  to  a  much  lower  latitude  in  the  southern 
lands  than  it  does  in  the  north.  Sandwich  Land,  in  a  lati- 
tude corresponding  to  that  of  the  north  of  Scotland,  is  per- 
petually covered  with  many  fathoms  of  snow.  A  single  spe- 
cies of  grass,  the  aira  antarctica,  is  the  only  flowering  plant 
in  the  South  Shetland  Islands,  which  are  no  less  ice-bound  ; 
and  Cockburn  Island,  one  of  that  group,  in  the  60th  parallel, 
contains  the  last  vestiges  of  vegetation  ;  while  the  namesake 
islan<Js,  in  an  equally  high  latitude,  to  the  north  of  Scotland, 
are  inhabited  and  cultivated  ;  nay,  South  Georgia,  in  a  lati- 
tude similar  to  that  of  Yorkshire,  is  always  clad  in  frozen 
snow%  and  only  produces  some  mosses,  lichens,  and  wild 
burnet ;  while  Iceland,  10  degrees  nearer  the  pole,  has  870 
species,  more  than  half  of  which  are  flower-bearing. 

The  forest-covered  islands  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  are  only 
360  miles  from  the  desolate  Shetland  group.  Such  is  the 
difference  that  a  few  degrees  of  latitude  can  produce  in  these 
antarctic  regions,  combined  with  an  equable  climate  and  ex- 
cessive humidity.  The  prevalence  of  evergreen  plants  is 
the  most  characteristic  feature  in  the  Fuegian  flora.  Densely 
entangled  forests  of  winter's  bark,  and  two  species  of  beech- 
trees,  grow  from  the  shore  to  a  considerable  height  on  the 
mountains.  Of  these,  the  fagus  deltoides,  which  never  loses 
its  brownish-green  leaves,  prevails  almost  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  evergreen  winter's  bark  and  the  deciduous  beech, 
which  is  very  beautiful.  There  are  dw^arf  species  of  arbutus, 
the  myrtus  nummularia,  which  is  used  instead  of  tea,  besides 
berberry,  currant,  and  fuchsia.  Peculiar  species  of  ranun- 
culi, calceolarias,  caryophyllese,  cruciform  plants  and  violets. 
Wild  celery  and  scurvy  grass  are  the  only  edible  plants;  and 
a  bright  yellow  fungus,  which  grows  on   the   beech-trees, 


ANTARCTIC    FLORA. 


281 


forms  a  great  part  of  the  food  of  the  natives.  There  is  a 
greater  number  of  plants  in  Tierra  del  Fuego,  either  identical 
with  those  in  Great  Britain,  or  representatives  of  them,  than 
exists  in  any  other  country  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  The 
sea-pink,  or  thrift,  the  common  sloewort,  primula  hirsuta, 
and  at  least  thirty  other  flowering  plants,  with  almost  all  the 
lichens,  48  mosses,  and  many  other  plants  of  thecryptogamous 
kinds,  are  identically  the  same  ;  while  the  number  of  genera 
common  to  both  countries  is  still  greater,  and  though  un- 
known in  the  intermediate  latitudes,  reappear  here.  Her- 
mite  Island,  west  from  Cape  Horn,  is  a  forest  land,  covered 
with  winter's  bark  and  the  Fuegian  beeches  ;  and  is  the  most 
southern  spot  on  earth  on  which  arborescent  vegetation  is 
found.  An  alpine  flora,  many  of  them  of  European  genera, 
grows  on  the  mountains ;  succeeded  higher  up  by  mosses 
and  lichens.  Mosses  are  exceedingly  plentiful  throughout 
Fuegia  ;  but  they  abound  in  Hermite  Island  more  than  in 
any  other  country,  of  singular  and  beautiful  kinds. 

Although  the  Falkland  Islands  are  in  a  lower  latitude  than 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  not  a  tree  is  to  be  seen.  The  veronica 
elliptica,  resembling  a  myrtle,  which  is  extremely  rare,  and 
confined  to  West  Falkland,  is  the  only  large  shrub  ;  a  white 
flowering  plant,  like  an  aster,  about  four  feet  high,  is  com- 
mon ;  while  a  bramble,  a  crowberry,  and  a  myrtle,  bearing 
no  resemblance,  however,  to  the  European  species,  trail  on 
the  ground,  and  aflbrd  edible  fruit.  The  balsam  bog,  or 
bolax  glebaria,  and  grasses,  form  the  only  conspicuous  fea- 
ture in  the  botany  of  these  islands  ;  and,  together  with 
rushes  and  Dactylis  Csespitosa,  or  Tussack  grass,  cover 
them,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other  plants.  The  bolax 
grows  in  tufted  hemispherical  masses,  of  a  yellow-green 
colour,  and  very  firm  substance,  often  four  feet  high,  and  as 
many  in  diameter,  from  whence  a  strong-smelling  resinous 
substance  exudes  perceptible  at  a  distance.  This  plant  has 
umbelliferous  flowers,  and  belongs  to  the  carrot  order,  but 
forms  an  antarctic  genus  quite  peculiar. 

The  tussock  grass  is  the  most  useful  and  the  most  singu- 
lar plant  in  this  flora.  It  covers  all  the  small  islands  of  the 
group,  like  a  forest  of  miniature  palm-trees,  and  thrives  best 
on  the  shores  exposed  to  the  spray  of  the  sea.  Each  tussock 
is  an  isolated  plant,  occupying  about  two  square  yards  of 
ground.  It  forms  a  hillock  of  matted  roots,  rising  straight 
24* 


282  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

and  solitary  out  of  the  soil,  often  six  feet  high  and  four  or 
five  in  diameter  ;  from  the  top  of  which  it  throws  out  a  thick 
grassy  foliage  of  blades,  six  feet  long,  drooping  on  all  sides, 
and  forming  with  the  leaves  of  the  adjacent  plants  an  arch 
over  the  ground  beneath,  which  yields  shelter  to  sea-lions, 
penguins,  and  petrels.  Cattle  are  exceedingly  fond  of  this 
grass,  which  yields  annually  a  much  greater  supply  of  ex- 
cellent fodder  than  the  same  extent  of  ground  w^ould  do 
either  of  common  grass  or  clover.  Both  the  tussock  grass 
and  the  bolax  are  found,  though  sparingly,  in  Tierra  del 
Fuego  ;  indeed,  the  vegetation  of  the  Falkland  Islands  con- 
sists chiefly  of  the  mountain  plants  of  that  country,  and  of 
those  that  grow  on  the  arid  plains  of  Patagonia  ;  but  it  is 
kept  close  to  the  ground  by  the  fierceness  of  the  terrific 
gales  that  sweep  over  these  antarctic  islands.  Peculiar  spe- 
cies of  European  genera  are  found  here,  as  a  calceolaria, 
w^ood  sorrel,  and  a  yellow  violet,  with  the  shepherd's  purse, 
cardamine  hirsuta,  and  the  primula  fariuosa,  appear  to  be 
identical  with  those  at  home.  In  all  there  are  scarcely  120 
flowering  plants,  including  grasses.  Ferns  and  mosses  are 
few,  but  lichens  are  in  great  variety  and  abundance,  among 
which  many  are  identical  with  those  in  Britain. 

In    the  eastern    hemisphere,   far,   far   removed   from   the 
Falkland  group,  the  Auckland  Islands  lie  in  the  boisterous 
ocean  south  of  New  Zealand.     They  are  covered  with  dense 
and  all  but  impenetrable  thickets  of  stunted  trees,  or  rather 
shrubs,  about  20  or  ^30  feet  high,  gnarled  by  gales  from  a 
stormy  sea.     There  is  nothing  analogous  to  these  shrubs  in 
the  northern  hemisphere  ;  but  the  veronica  elliptica,  a  na- 
tive of  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  New  Zealand,  is  one  of  them. 
Fifteen  species  of  ferns  find  shelter  under  these  trees,  and 
their  fallen    trunks  are    covered  with    mosses  and  lichens. 
Eighty  flowering  plants  were  found   during  the  stay  of  the 
discovery  ships,  of  which  fifty-six  are  new  ;  and  half  of  the 
whole  number  are  peculiar  to  this  group  and  to  Campbell's 
Island.     Some  of  the  most  beautiful  flowers  grow  on  the 
mountains,  others  are  mixed  with  the  ferns  in  the  forests.    A 
beautiful  plant  was  discovered,  like  a  purple  aster,  a  vero- 
nica, with  large  spikes  of  ultramarine  colour  ;  a  white  one, 
with   a  perfume    like  jessamine  ;    a   sweet-smelling  alpine 
hierochloe  ;   and    in    some  of  the   valleys  the   fragrant   and 
bright-yellow  blossoms  of  a  species  of  asphodel   were   so 


ANTARCTIC    FLORA. 


283 


abundant  that  the  ground  looked  like  a  carpet  of  gold.  A 
singular  plant  grows  on  the  sea-shore,  having  bunches  of 
green  waxy  blossonis  the  size  of  a  child's  head.  There  are 
also  antarctic  species  of  European  genera,  as  beautiful  red 
and  white  gentians,  geraniums,  &c.  The  vegetation  is  cha- 
racterized by  an  exuberance  of  the  finer  flowering  plants,  and 
an  absence  of  grasses  and  sedges  ;  but  the  landscape,  though 
picturesque,  has  a  sombre  aspect,  from  the  prevalence  of 
brownish-leaved  plants  of  the  myrtle  tribe. 

Campbell's  Island  lies  120  miles  to  the  south  of  the  Auck- 
land group,  and  is  much  smaller,  but  from  the  more  varied 
form  of  its  surface  it  is  supposed  to  produce  as  many  species 
of  plants.     During  the  two  days  the  discovery  ships,  under 
the  command   of  Sir  James  Ross,  remained  there,  between 
200  and    300  were  collected,  of  which  66  were  flowering 
plants,  14  of  which  were  peculiar  to  the  country.     Many  of 
the  Auckland  Island  plants  were  found    here,  yet  a  great 
change  had  taken   place  ;  34  species  had    disappeared  and 
-were  replaced  by  20  new,  all  peculiar  to  Campbell's  Island 
alone,  and  some  were  found  that  hitherto  had  been  supposed 
to  belong  to  Antarctic  America  only.     In  the  Auckland  group 
only  one-seventh  of  the  plants  are  common  to  other  Antarc- 
tic lands,  whilst  in  Campbell's  Island  a  fourth  are  natives  of 
other    longitudes   in   the    Antarctic    Ocean.      The    flora   of 
Campbell's  Island  and  the  Auckland  group  is  so  intimately 
allied  to  that  of  New  Zealand,  that  it  may  be|  regarded  as 
the  continuation  of  the  latter,  under  an  Antarctic  character, 
though   destitute  of  the   beech   and   pine  trees.     There  is  a 
considerable  number  of  Fuegian  plants  in  the  islands  under 
consideration,  though  4000  miles  distant,  and  whenever  their 
flora  diflfers  in   the  smaller  plants  from  that  of  New  Zea- 
land,  it   approximates   to  that   of  Antarctic   America  ;  but 
the  trees  and  shrubs  are  entirely  dissimilar.     The  relation 
between  this  vegetation  and  that  of  the  northern  regions  is 
but  slight.     The  Auckland  group  and  Campbell's  Island  are 
in  a  latitude  corresponding   to  that  of  England,  yet   only 
three  indigenous  plants  of  our    island   have  been  found  in 
them,   namely,   the   cardamine   hirsuta,   montia,   and   calli- 
triche.     This  is  the  utmost  southern  limit  of  tree-ferns. 

Perhaps  no  spot  in  either  hemisphere,  at  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  pole,  is  more  barren  than  Kerguelen  Islands, 
lying  in  a  remote  part  of  the  south  polar  oceans.     Only  18 


284  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

species  of  flowering  plants  were  found  there,  which  is  less 
than  the  number  in  Melville  Island,  in  the  Arctic  Seas  ;  and 
three  times  less  than  the  number  even  in  Spitzbergen.  The 
whole  known  vegetation  of  these  islands  only  amounts  to 
150,  including  sea-weeds.  The  pringlea,  a  kind  of  cab- 
bage, acceptable  to  those  who  have  been  long  at  sea,  is 
peculiar  to  the  island,  and  grass,  together  with  a  plant  simi- 
lar to  the  bolax  of  the  Falkland  Islands,  covers  large  tracts. 
About  20  mosses,  lichens,  &c.,  are  only  found  in  these 
islands,  but  many  of  the  others  are  also  native  in  the  Euro- 
pean Alps,  and  north  polar  regions.  It  is  a  very  remarkable 
circumstance  in  the  distribution  of  plants,  that  there  should 
be  so  much  analogy  between  the  floras  of  places  so  far  apart 
as  Kerguelen  Islands,  the  groups  south  from  New  Zealand, 
the  Falkland  Islands,  South  Georgia,  and  Tierra  del  Fuego. 


MARINE  VEGETATION. 

A  vegetable  world  lies  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ocean, 
altogether  unlike  that  on  land,  and  existing  under  circum- 
stances totally  different  with  regard  to  light,  heat,  and  pres- 
sure, yet  sustained  by  the  same  means.  Carbonic  acid  and 
ammonia  are  as  essential,  and  metallic  oxides  are  as  indis- 
pensable to  marine  vegetation  as  they  are  to  land  plants. 
Sea  water  contains  ammonia,  and  something  more  than  a 
twelve-thousandth  part  of  its  weight  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
yet  that  minute  portion  is  sufficient  to  supply  all  the  shell- 
fish and  coral  insects  in  the  sea  with  materials  for  their  habi- 
tations, as  well  as  food  for  vegetation.  Marine  plants  are 
more  expert  chemists  than  we  are,  for  the  water  of  the  ocean 
contains  rather  less  than  a  millionth  part  of  its  w^eight  of 
iodine,  which  they  collect  in  quantities,  impossible  for  us  to 
obtain  otherwise  than  from  their  ashes. 

Sea-weeds  fix  their  roots  to  any  thing  ;  to  stone,  wood, 
and  to  other  sea-weeds  :  they  must  therefore  derive  all  their 
nourishment  from  the  water,  and  the  air  it  contains ;  and 
the  vital  force  or  chemical  energy  by  w^hich  they  decompose 
and  assimilate  the  substances  fit  for  their  maintenance,  is 
the  sun's  light. 

Flower-bearing  sea-weeds  are  very  limited  in  their  range, 
which  depends  upon  the  depth  of  water  and  the  nature  of  the 


MARINE    VEGETATION. 


285 


coasts,  but  the  cryptogaraic  kinds  are  widely  dispersed ;  some 
species  are  even  found  in  every  climate  from  pole  to  pole. 

Marine  vegetation  varies  both  horizontally  and  vertically 
with  the  depth,  and  it  seems  to  be  a  general  law  throughout 
the  ocean  that  the  light  of  the  sun  and  vegetation  end  toge- 
ther ;  it  consequently  depends  on  the  power  of  the  sun  and  the 
transparency  of  the  water  ;  so  different  kinds  of  sea-weeds 
affect  different  depths,  where  the  weight  of  the  water,  the  quan- 
tity of  light  and  heat,  suits  them  best.    One  great  marine  zone 
lies  between  the  high  and  low  water  marks,  and  varies  in  spe- 
cies with  the  nature  of  the  coasts,  but  exhibits  similar  phe- 
nomena throughout  the  northern  hemisphere.     Tn  the  British 
seas,  where,  with  two  exceptions,  the  whole  flora  is  crypto- 
gamic,  this  zone  does  not  extend   deeper  than  30  fathoms, 
but  is  divided  into  two  distinct  provinces,  one  to  the  south 
and  another  to  the  north.     The  former  includes  the  southern 
and    eastern   coasts  of  England,  the  southern  and  western 
coasts  of  Ireland,  and  both  the  channels  ;  while  the  northern 
flora  is  confined  to  the  Scottish  seas  and  the  adjacent  coasts 
of  England  and  Ireland.     The  second  British  zone  begins 
at  low-water  mark,  and  extends  below  it  to  a  depth  from  7 
to    15   fathoms.      It   contains  the   great   tangle  sea-weeds, 
growing  in  miniature  forests,  mixed  with   fuci,  and   is  the 
abode  of  a  host  of   animals.      The  nulliflora,  a  coral-like 
sea-weed,  is  the  last  plant  of  this  zone,  and  the   lowest  in 
these  seas,  where  it  does  not  extend  below  the  depth  of  60 
fathoms,  but  in   the   Mediterranean   it  is  found  at  70  or  80 
fathoms,  and  is  the  lowest  plant  in  that  sea.     The  same  law 
prevails  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  where  one  set  of  sea-w^eeds  is 
never  found  lower  than  20  feet  below  the  surface  ;  another 
only  in  the  zone  between  the  depths  of  5  and  30  feet  ;  and 
another  between   15  and  35  feet.     In  these  two  last  zones 
they  are  most  numerous  ;  at  a  greater  depth  the  kinds  con- 
tinue to  vary,  but  their  numbers  decrease.     The  seeds  of 
each  kind  float  at  the  depth  most  genial  to  the  future  plant ; 
they  must  therefore  be  of  different  weights.     The  distribu- 
tion in  the  Egean  Sea  w^as  found  by  Professor  E.  Forbes  to 
be  perfectly  similar,  only  that  the  vegetation  is  different,  and 
extends   to  a  greater  depth  in  the  Mediterranean   than   in 
more  northern  seas.     He  also  observes  that  sea-weeds  grow- 
in_o-  near  the  surface  are  more  limited  in  theirdistribution  than 
those  that  grow  lower  down,  and  that  w^ith  regard  to  vegeta- 


286  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.      . 

tion  depth  corresponds  with  latitude,  as  height  does  on  land. 
Thus  the  flora  at  great  depths,  in  warm  seas,  is  represented 
by  kindred  forms  in  higher  latitudes.  There  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  the  same  laws  of  distribution  prevail  through- 
out the  ocean  and  every  sea.         # 

Two  genera  of  weeds  inhabit  the  sea:  a  jointed  kind, 
which  includes  the  confervse,  which  are  plants  having  a 
thread-like  form  ;  and  the  jointless  kind,  to  which  belong 
dulse,  laver,  the  kinds  used  for  making  kelp,  vegetable  glue, 
and  iodine;  that  in  the  Indian  Archipelago  of  which  the 
sea-swallow  makes  the  edible  nests  ;  and  all  the  huge  species 
which  grow  in  submarine  forests,  or  float  like  green  meadows 
in  the  open  ocean. 

Sea-weeds  adhere  firmly  to  the  rocks  before  their  fructifi- 
cation, but  they  are  easily  detached  afterwards,  which  ac- 
counts for  some  of  the  vast  fields  of  floating  weeds  ;  but 
others,  of  gigantic  size  and  wide  distribution,  are  supposed 
to  grow  unattached  in  the  water  itself.  There  are  perma- 
nent bands  of  sea-weed  in  our  British  Channel,  and  in  the 
North  Sea,  of  the  kind  called  felum,  which  grows  abun- 
dantly on  the  western  coasts  of  the  Channel,  and  they  lie  in 
the  direction  of  the  currents,  in  beds  15  or  20  miles  long, 
and  not  more  than  600  feet  wide.  These  bands  must  os- 
cillate with  the  tides  between  two  corresponding  zones  of 
rest,  one  at  the  turn  of  the  flood,  and  the  other  at  the  turn 
of  the  ebb.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  fucus  natans  or  sar- 
gassum  bucciforum  grows  on  rocks  at  the  bottom  of  the  At- 
lantic, between  the  parallels  of  40""  north  and  south  of  the 
equator,  and  when  detached,  is  drifted  uniformly  to  parti- 
cular spots  which  never  vary  ;  or  whether  it  is  propagated 
and  grows  in  the  water;  but  the  raa^s  of  that  plant,  west  of 
the  Azores,  occupies  an  area  equal  to  that  of  France,  and 
has  not  changed  its  place  since  the  time  of  Columbus. 
Fields  of  the  same  kind  cover  the  sea  at  the  Bahama 
Islands  and  other  places,  and  two  new  species  of  it  were 
discovered  in  the  Antarctic  seas. 

The  macrocystis  pyrifera  and  the  laniaria  radiata  are  the 
most  remarkable  of  marine  plants  for  their  gigantic  size  and 
the  extent  of  their  range.  They  were  met  with  on  the  An- 
tarctic coasts,  two  degrees  nearer  the  south  pole  than  any 
other  vegetable  production,  forming  the  utmost  limit  of 
vegetable  life   in   the   south    polar   seas.     The   macrocystis 


MARINE    VEGETATION.  287 

pyrifera  exists  in  vast  detached  masses,  like  green  meadows, 
in  every  latitude  from  the  south  polar  ocean  to  the  45th  de- 
gree N.  lat.  in  the  Atlantic,  and  to  the  shores  of  California 
in  the  Pacific,  where  there  are  fields  of  it  so  impenetrable, 
that  it  has  saved  vessels  driven  by  the  heavy  swell  towards 
that  shore  from  shipwreck.  It  is  never  seen  where  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water  is  at  the  freezing-point,  and  is  the 
largest  of  the  vegetable  tribe,  being  occasionally  300  or  400 
feet  long.  The  laminaria  abounds  oflf  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  and  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean.  These  two  species  form 
great  part  of  a  band  of  sea-weed  that  girds  Kerguelen 
Islands  so  densely,  that  a  boat  can  scarcely  be  pulled  throuo-h 
it,  and  they  are  found  in  great  abundance  on  the  coasts  of 
the  Falkland  group,  and  also  in  vast  fields  in  the  open  sea, 
hundreds  of  miles  from  any  land  ;  had  it  ever  grown  on  the 
distant  shores,  it  must  have  taken  ages  to  travel  so  far,  drifted 
by  the  wind,  currents,  and  sand  of  the  seas.  The  red,  green, 
and  purple  lavers  of  Great  Britain  are  found  on  the  coasts  of 
the  Falkland  Islands,  and  though  some  of  the  northern  weeds 
are  not  found  in  the  intervening  warm  seas,  they  re-appear 
here.  The  lessonia  isthe  most  remarkable  marine  plant  in  this 
group  of  islands.  Its  stems,  much  thicker  than  a  man's  leg, 
and  from  8  to  10  feet  long,  fix  themselves  by  claspino-  fibres 
to  the  rocks  beyond  the  high-water  mark.  Many  branches 
shoot  upwards  from  these  stems,  from  which  lono  leaves 
droop  into  the  water  like  willows.  There  are  immense  sub- 
marine forests  off  Patagonia  and  Tierra  del  Fuego,  attached 
to  the  rocks  at  the  bottom.  These  plants  are  so  strong  and 
buoyant,  that  they  bring  up  large  masses  of  stone,  and  as 
they  grow  slanting,  and  stretch  along  the  surface  of  the  sea, 
they  are  sometimes  300  feet  long.  The  quantity  of  living 
creatures  which  inhabit  these  marine  forests  and  the  parasi- 
tical weeds  attached  to  them  is  inconceivable,  they  absolutely 
teem  with  life. 

Great  patches  of  confervse  are  occasionally  met  with  in 
the  high  seas.  Bands  several  miles  long,  of  a  reddish- 
brown  species,  like  chopped  hay,  occur  off  Bahia,  on  the 
coast  of  Brazil ;  the  same  plant  is  said  to  have  given  the 
name  to  the  Red  Sea  ;  and  different  species  are  common  in 
the  Australian  seas. 


288  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 


DISTRIBUTION    OF    INSECTS. 


Three   hundred    thousand   insects  are   known :    some  with 
wings,  others  without ;  some  are  aquatic,  others  are  aquatic 
only  in  the  first  stage  of  their  existence  ;   and  many  are  para- 
sitical.    Some  land  insects  are  carnivorous,  others   feed  on 
vegetables  ;    some   of  the   carnivorous   tribe   live   on   dead, 
others  on  living  animals,  but  they  are  not  half  so  numerous 
as  those  that  live  on  vegetables.     Some  change  as  they  are 
developed  ;  in  their  first  stage  they  eat  animal  food,  and  vege- 
tables when  they  come  to  maturity.     Insects  increase  in  kinds 
and  in  numbers  from  the  poles  to  the  equator  :   in  a  residence 
of  eleven  months  in  Melville  Island,  Sir  Edward  Parry  found 
only  six  species,  because  lichens  and  mosses  do  not  afford 
nourishment  for  the  insect  tribes,  though  it  is  probable  that 
every  other  kind  of  plant  gives  food  and   shelter  to   more 
than  one  species  ;  it  is  even   said   that   40  different   insects 
are  quartered  upon  the  common  nettle. 

The  increase  of  insects  from  the  poles  to  the  equator  does 
not  take  place  at  the  same  rate  everywhere.  T'he  polar  re- 
gions and  New  Holland  have  very  few  specifically  and  indi- 
vidually ;  they  are  more  abundant  in  North  Africa,  Chili, 
and  the  sandy  deserts  west  from  Brazil  ;  North  America  has 
fewer  species  than  Europe  in  the  same  latitude,  and  Asia 
has  few  varieties  of  species  in  proportion  to  its  size  ;  Eu- 
rope, especially  Germany,  produces  many  more  species 
than  intertropical  Africa  ;  Caffraria,  the  African  and  Indian 
Islands,  are  nearly  the  same  as  to  species  ;  but  by  far  the 
richest  of  all,  both  in  species  and  numbers,  are  central  and 
intertropical  America.  Beetles  are  an  exception  to  the  law 
of  increase  towards  the  equator,  as  they  are  infinitely  more 
numerous  in  species  in  the  temperate  regions  of  the  northern 
hemisphere  than  in  equatorial  countries.  The  location  of 
insects  depends  upon  that  of  the  plants  which  yield  their 
food  ;  and  as  almost  each  plant  is  peopled  with  inhabitants 
peculiar  to  itself,  insects  are   distributed  9ver   the   earth  in 


DISTRIBUTION    OF    INSECTS. 


289 


the  same  manner  as  vegetables  ;  the  groups  consequently 
are  often  confined  within  narrow  limits,  and  it  is  extraordi- 
nary that,  notwithstanding  their  powers  of  locomotion,  they 
often  remain  within  a  particular  compass,  though  the  plants, 
and  all  other  circumstances  in  their  immediate  vicinity,  ap- 
pear equally  favourable  for  their  habitation. 

Though  insects  are  distributed  in  certain  limited  groups, 
yet  most  of  the  families  have  representatives  in  all  the  great 
regions  of  the  globe,  and  some  identical  species  are  inhabi- 
tants of  countries  far  from  one  another.  The  venussi  cardui 
live  in  all  the  four  quarters  of  the  globe  and  in  Australia  ; 
and  one,  which  never  could  have  been  conveyed  by  man,  is 
native  in  southern  Europe,  the  coast  of  Barbary,  and  Chili. 
It  is  evident  from  these  circumstances  that  not  only  each 
group,  but  also  each  particular  species,  must  have  been 
originally  created  in  the  places  they  now  inhabit. 

Mountain-chains  are  a  complete  barrier  to  insects,  even 
more  so  than  rivers  :  not  only  lofty  mountains  like  the  Andes 
divide  the  kinds,  but  they  are  even  different  on  the  two  sides 
of  the  Col  de  Tende  in  the  Alps.  Each  soil  has  kinds  pecu- 
liar to  itself,  whether  dry  or  moist, cultivated  or  wild,  meadow 
or  forest.  Stagnant  water  and  marshes  are  generally  full  of 
them  ;  some  live  in  water,  some  run  on  its  surHice,  and 
every  water-plant  affords  food  and  shelter  to  many  different 
kinds.  The  east  wind  seems  to  have  considerable  effect  in 
bringing  the  insect  or  in  developing  the  eggs  of  certain 
species  ;  for  example,  the  aphis,  known  as  the  blight  in  our 
country,  lodges  in  myriads  on  plants,  and  shrivels  up  their 
leaves  after  a  continued  east  wind. 

Temperature,  by  its  influence  on  vegetation,  has  an  in- 
direct eflfect  on  the  insects  that  are  to  feed  upon  plants,  and 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold  have  more  influence  on  their 
locality  than  the  mean  annual  temperature.  Thus  in  the 
polar  regions  the  musquito  tribes  are  more  numerous  and 
more  annoying  than  in  temperate  countries,  because  they 
pass  their  early  stages  of  existence  in  water,  which  shelters 
them,  and  the  short  but  hot  summer  is  genial  to  their  brief 
span  of  life. 

In  some  instances  height  corresponds  with  latitude.     The 

parnassus  apollo,  a  butterfly  native  in  the  plains  of  Sweden, 

is  also  found  in  the   Alps,  the   Pyrenees,  and    even  on   the 

Himalaya.     Some  insects  require  several  years  to  arrive  at 

25 


290  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

their  perfetit  state.  They  lie  buried  in  the  ground  in  the 
form  of  grubs  ;  the  cockchafer  comes  to  maturity  in  three 
years,  and  some  American  species  require  a  much  longer 
time. 

Insects  do  not  attain  their  perfect  state  till  the  plants  they 
are  to  feed  upon  are  ready  for  them.  Hence  in  cold  and 
temperate  climates  their  appearance  is  simultaneous  with 
vegetation  ;  and  as  the  rainy  and  dry  seasons  within  the 
tropics  correspond  to  our  winter  and  summer,  insects  appear 
there  after  the  rains  and  vanish  in  the  heat:  the  rains,  if 
too  violent,  destroy  them  ;  and  in  countries  where  that 
occurs,  there  are  two  periods  in  the  year  in  which  they  are 
most  abundant,  one  before  and  one  after  the  rains.  It  is 
also  observed  in  Europe  that  insects  decrease  in  the  heat  of 
summer  and  become  more  numerous  in  autumn  :  the  heat  is 
thought  to  throw^  some  into  a  state  of  torpor,  but  the  greater 
number  perish. 

It  is  not  known  that  any  insect  depends  entirely  upon 
only  one  species  of  plant  for  its  existence,  or  whether  it  may 
not  have  recourse  to  congeners  should  its  habitual  plant 
perish.  When  particular  species  of  plants  of  the  same  family 
occur  in  places  widely  apart,  insects  of  the  same  genus  will 
be  found  on  them,  so  that  the  existence  of  the  plant  may 
often  be  inferred  from  that  of  the  insect,  and  in  several 
instances  the  converse. 

When  a  plant  is  taken  from  one  country  to  another  in  which 
it  has  no  congeners,  it  is  not  attacked  by  the  in-sects  of  the 
country  :  thus  our  cabbages  and  carrots  in  Cayenne  are  not 
injured  by  the  insects  of  that  country,  and  the  tulip-tree  and 
other  magnolias  are  not  molested  by  our  insects  ;  but  if  a 
plant  has  congeners  in  its  new  country,  the  inhabitants  will 
soon  find  their  way  to  the  stranger. 

The  common  fly  is  one  of  the  most  universal  of  insects, 
yet  it  was  unknown  in  some  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  till  it 
was  carried  there  by  ships  from  Europe,  and  it  has  now  be- 
come a  plague. 

The  musquito  and  culex  are  spread  over  the  world  more 
generally  than  any  other  tribe  :  it  is  the  torment  of  men  and 
animals  from  the  poles  to  the  equator  by  night  and  by  day  : 
the  species  are  numerous  and  their  location  partial.  In  the 
Arctic  regions  the  culex  pipiens,  which  passes  two-thirds  of 
its  existence  in  water,  swarms   in  summer  in    myriads :   the 


DISTRIBUTION    OF    INSECTS.  291 

lake  Myvair,  in  Iceland,  has  its  name  from  the  legions  of 
these  tormentors  that  cover  its  surface.  They  are  less  nu- 
merous in  middle  Europe,  though  one  species  of  musquito, 
the  simulia  columbaschensis,  which  is  very  small,  appears  in 
such  clouds  in  parts  of  Hungary,  especially  the  bannat  of 
Temeswar,  that  it  is  not  possible  to  breathe  without  swallow- 
ing many:  even  cattle  and  children  have  died  from  them. 
In  Lapland  there  is  a  plague  of  the  same  kind.  Of  all  places 
on  earth  the  Orinoco  and  other  great  rivers  of  tropical  Ame- 
rica are  the  most  obnoxious  to  this  plague.  The  account 
given  by  Baron  Humboldt  is  really  fearful :  at  no  season  of 
the  year,  at  no  hour  of  the  day  or  night,  can  rest  be  found ; 
whole  districts  in  the  Upper  Orinoco  are  deserted  on  account 
of  these  insects.  New  species  follow  one  another  with  such 
precision,  that  the  time  of  day  or  night  may  be  known  accu- 
rately from  their  humming  noise,  and  from  the  different  sen- 
sations of  the  pain  which  the  different  poisons  produce.  The 
only  respite  is  the  interval  of  a  few  minutes  between  the  de- 
parture of  one  gang  and  the  arrival  of  their  successors,  for 
the  species  do  not  mix.  On  some  parts  of  the  Orinoco  the 
air  is  one  dense  cloud  of  poisonous  insects  to  the  height  of 
20  feet.  It  is  singular  that  they  do  not  infest  rivers  that 
have  black  water,  and  each  white  stream  is  peopled  with  its 
own  kinds  ;  though  ravenous  for  blood,  they  can  live  with- 
out it,  as  they  are  found  where  no  animals  exist. 

In  Brazil  the  quantity  of  insects  is  so  great  in  the  woods, 
that  their  noise  is  heard  in  a  ship  at  anchor  some  distance 
from  the  shore. 

Various  genera  of  butterflies  and  moths  are  very  limited 
in  their  habitations,  others  are  dispersed  over  the  world,  but 
the  species  are  almost  always  different.  Bees  and  wasps  are 
equally  universal,  yet  each  country  has  its  own.  The  com- 
mon honey-bee  is  the  only  European  insect  directly  useful 
to  man;  it  was  introduced  into  North  America  not  many 
years  ago,  and  is  now  spread  over  the  continent.  European 
bees,  of  which  there  are  many  species,  generally  have  stings; 
the  Australian  bee,  like  a  black  fly,  is  without  a  sting;  and 
in  Brazil  there  are  30  species  of  stingless  bees. 

Fire-flies  are  mostly  tropical,  yet  there  are  four  species  in 
Europe  ;  in  South  America  there  are  three  species,  and  so 
brilliant  that  their  pale  green  light  is  seen  at  the  distance  of 
200  paces. 


292  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  silkworm  comes  from  China,  and  the  cochineal  insect 
is  a  native  of  South  and  Central  America:  there  are  many 
species  of  it  in  other  countries.  The  coccus  lacca  is  Indian; 
the  coccus  ilicis  lives  in  Italy,  and  there  is  one  in  Poland, 
but  neither  of  these  have  been  cultivated. 

Scorpions  under  various  forms  are  in  all  warm  climates; 
24  species  are  peculiar  to  Europe,  but  they  are  small  in  com- 
parison with  those  in  tropical  countries:  one  in  Brazil  is  six 
inches  long.  As  in  musquitoes,  the  poison  of  the  same  spe- 
cies is  more  active  in  some  situations  than  in  others.  At 
Cumana  the  sting  of  the  scorpion  is  little  feared,  while  that 
of  the  same  species  in  Carthagena  causes  loss  of  speech  for 
many  days. 

Ants  are  universally  distributed,  but  of  different  kinds: 
they  are  so  destructive  in  South  America,  that  Baron  Hum- 
boldt says  there  is  not  a  manuscript  in  that  country  a  hun- 
dred years  old.  Near  great  rivers  they  build  their  nests 
above  the  line  of  the  annual  inundations. 

Spiders  abound  more  in  Europe  than  elsewhere ;  of  900 
known  kinds,  each  country  has  its  own,  varying  in  size,  co- 
lour, and  habits,  from  the  huge  bird-catching  spider  of  South 
America,  to  the  almost  invisible  European  gossamer  floating 
in  the  air  on  its  silvery  thread.  Many  of  this  ferocious  family 
are  aquatic;  and  spiders,  with  some  other  insects,  are  said 
to  be  the  first  inhabitants  of  new  islands. 

The  migration  of  insects  is  one  of  the  most  curious  circum- 
stances relating  to  them:  they  sometimes  appear  in  great 
flights  in  places  where  they  never  were  seen  before,  and  they 
continue  their  course  w^ith  perseverance  w^hich  nothing  can 
check.  This  has  been  observed  in  the  migration  of  crawling 
insects:  caterpillars  have  attempted  to  cross  a  stream.  Coun- 
tries near  deserts  are  most  exposed  to  the  invasion  of  locusts 
which  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  sand,  and  when  the  young 
are  hatched  by  the  sun's  heat,  they  emerge  from  the  ground 
w^ithout  wings  ;  but  as  soon  as  they  attain  maturity,  they  obey 
the  impulse  of  the  first  wind  and  fly,  under  the  guidance  of 
a  leader,  in  a  mass,  whose  front  keeps  a  straight  line,  so 
dense  that  it  forms  a  cloud  in  the  air,  and  the  sound  of  their 
wings  is  like  the  murmur  of  the  distant  sea.  They  take  im- 
mense flights,  crossing  the  Mozambique  channel  from  Africa 
to  Madagascar,  which  is  120  miles  broad  ;  they  come  from 
Barbary  to  Italy,  and  a  few  have  been  seen  in   Scotland. 


DISTRIBUTION    OF    FISHES.  293 

Even  the  wandering  tribes  of  locusts  differ  in  species  in  dif- 
ferent deserts,  following  the  universal  law  of  organized  na- 
ture. Mr.  Ehrenberg  has  discovered  a  new  world  of  crea- 
tures in  the  Infusoria,  so  minute  that  they  are  invisible  to  the 
naked  eye.  He  found  them  in  fog,  rain,  and  snow,  in  the 
ocean,  in  stagnant  water,  in  animal  and  vegetable  juices,  in 
the  dusty  air  that  sometimes  falls  on  the  ocean  ;  and  he  de- 
tected 18  species  20  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  in 
peat  earth,  which  was  full  of  microscopic  live  animals  ;  they 
exist  in  ice,  and  are  not  killed  by  boiling  water.  This  lowest 
order  of  animal  life  is  much  more  abundant  than  any  other, 
aad  new  species  are  found  every  day.  Magnified,  some  of 
them  seem  to  consist  of  a  transparent  vesicle,  and  some  have 
a  tail :  they  move  with  great  alacrity,  and  show  intelligence 
by  avoiding  obstacles  in  their  course  :  others  have  siliceous 
shells.  Language,  and  even  imagination,  fails  in  the  attempt 
to  describe  the  inconceivable  myriads  of  these  invisible  in- 
habitants of  the  ocean,  the  air,  and  the  earth  :  they  no  doubt 
become  the  prey  of  larger  creatures,  and  perhaps  blood-suck- 
ing insects  may  have  recourse  to  them  when  other  prey  is 
wanting. 


CHAPTER   XXVH. 


DISTRIBUTION    OF     FISHES,    AND    OF     THE     MARINE     MAMMALIA, 
PHOC^.,    DOLPHINS,    AND    WHALES. 

Before  Sir  James  Ross's  voyage  to  the  Antarctic  regions, 
the  profound  and  dark  abysses  of  the  ocean  were  supposed 
to  be  entirely  destitute  of  animal  life  ;  now  it  may  be  pre- 
sumed that  no  part  of  it  is  uninhabited,  since  during  that  ex- 
pedition live  creatures  were  fished  up  from  a  depth  of  6000 
feet.  But  as  most  of  the  larger  fish  usually  frequent  shallow 
water  near  the  coasts,  deep  seas  must  form  barriers  as  impas- 
sable to  the  greater  number  of  them  as  mountains  do  to  land 
animals.  The  polar,  the  equatorial  ocean,  and  the  inland 
seas,  have  each  their  own  particular  inhabitants ;  almost  all 
the  species  and  many  of  the  genera  of  the  marine  creation 
are  different  in  the  two  hemispheres,  and  even  in  each  par- 
ticular sea ;  and  under  similar  circumstances  the  species  are 
25* 


294  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

for  the  most  part  representative,  not  the  same.  Identity  of 
species,  however,  does  occur,  even  at  the  two  extremities  of 
the  globe,  for  Jiving  animals  were  brought  up  from  the  pro- 
found depths  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean  which  Sir  James  Ross 
recognized  to  be  the  very  same  species  which  he  had  often 
met  with  in  the  Arctic  seas.  ''  The  only  w^ay  they  could 
have  got  from  the  one  pole  to  the  other  must  have  been 
through  the  tropics  :  but  the  temperature  of  the  sea  in  these 
regions  is  such  that  they  could  not  exist  in  it  unless  at  a  depth 
of  nearly  2000  fathoms.  At  that  depth  they  might  pass  from 
the  Arctic  to  the  Antarctic  Ocean  without  a  variation  of  5 
degrees  of  temperature  ;  whilst  any  land  animal,  at  the  most 
favourable  season,  must  experience  a  difference  of  50  degrees, 
and  if  in  winter,  no  less  than  150  degrees  of  Fahrenheit's 
thermometer;" — a  strong  presumption  that  marine  creatures 
can  exist  at  the  depth  and  under  the  enormous  pressure  of 
12,000  feet  of  water. 

The  form  and  nature  of  the  coasts  have  great  influence  on 
the  distribution  of  fishes;  when  they  are  uniformly  of  the 
same  geological  structure,  so  as  to  afford  the  same  ibod  and 
shelter,  the  fish  are  the  same,  or  similar. 

The  ocean,  the  most  varied  and  most  w^onderful  part  of 
the  creation,  absolutely  teems  with  life:  "things  innumera- 
ble, both  great  and  small,  are  there."  The  forms  are  not  to 
be  numbered  even  of  those  wnthin  our  reach  ;  yet,  numerous 
as  they  are,  few  have  been  found  exempt  from  the  laws  of 
geographical  distribution. 

The  discoloured  portions  of  the  ocean  generally  owe  the 
tints  they  assume  to  myriads  of  insects.  In  the  Arctic  seas, 
where  the  water  is  pure  transparent  ultramarine  colour,  parts 
of  20  or  30  square  miles,  1500  feet  deep,  are  green  and  tur- 
bid from  the  quantity  of  minute  animalcules.  Captain  Sco- 
resby  calculated  that  it  would  require  80,000  persons,  work- 
ing unceasingly  from  the  creation  of  man  to  the  present  day, 
to  count  the  number  of  insects  contained  in  two  miles  of  the 
green  w^ater.  What  then  must  be  the  amount  of  animal  life 
in  the  polar  regions,  wdiere  one-fourth  pari  of  the  Greenland 
sea,  for  10  degrees  of  latitude,  consists  of  that  water.  These 
animalcules  are  of  the  medusa  tribe,  mixed  with  others  that 
are  moniliform.  Some  medusse  are  very  large,  floating  like 
jelly  ;  and  although  apparently  carried  at  random  by  the 
waves,  each  species  has  its  definite  location,  and  even  loco- 


MARINE    INFUSORIA. 


295 


motion.  One  species  comes  in  spring  from  the  Greenland 
seas  to  the  coast  of  Holland  ;  and  Baron  Humboldt  met  with 
an  immense  shoal  of  them  in  the  Atlantic,  migrating  at  a  rapid 

rate. 

Dr.  Poeppig  mentions  a  stratum  of  red  water  near  Cape 
Pelaris,  24  miles  long   and   7  broad,  which   seen   from   the 
mast-head  appeared  dark-red,  but  on  proceeding  it  became 
a  brilliant  purple,  and  the  wake  of  the  vessel  was  rose-colour. 
The  water  was  perfectly  transparent,  but  small  red  dots  could 
be  discerned  moving  in  spiral  lines.     The  vermilion  sea  off 
California  is  no  doubt  owing  to  a  similar  cause,  as  Mr.  Dar- 
win found  red  and  chocolate-coloured  water  on  the  coast  of 
Chili  over  spaces  of  several  square  miles  full  of  microscopic 
animalcules,  darting  about  in  every  direction,  and  sometimes 
exploding.     Infusoria  are  not  confined  to  water;  the  bottom 
of  the  sea  sw^arms  with  them.     Siliceous-coated  infusoria  are 
found  in  the  mud  of  the  coral  islands  under  the  equator  ;  and 
68  species  were  discovered  in  the  mud  in  Erebus  Bay,  near 
the  Antarctic  pole.     These  minute  forms  of  organized  being, 
invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  are  intensely  and  extensively  de- 
veloped in  both  of  the  polar  oceans,  and  serve  for  food  to 
the  higher  orders  of  fish  in  latitudes  beyond  the  limits  of  vege- 
tation.    Some  are  peculiar  to  each  of  the  polar  seas,  some 
are  common  to  both,  and  a  few  are  distributed  extensively 
throughout  the  ocean. 

The  enormous  prodigality  of  animal  life  supplies  the  place 
of  vegetation,  so  scanty  in  the  ocean  in  comparison  with 
that  which  clothes  the  land,  and  which  probably  would  be 
insufficient  for  the  supply  of  the  marine  creation,  were  the 
deficiency  not  made  up  by  the  superabundant  land  vegeta- 
tion, and  insects  carried  to  the  sea  by  rivers.  The  fish  that 
live  on  sea-weed  must  bear  a  smaller  proportion  to  those 
that  are  predacious,  than  the  herbivorous  land  animals  do  to 
the  carnivorous.  Fish  certainly  are  most  voracious  ;  none 
are  without  their  enemies  ;  they  prey  and  are  preyed  upon  ; 
and  there  are  two  which  devour  even  the  live  coral,  hard  as 
its  coating  is  ;  nor  does  the  coat  of  mail  of  shell-fish  protect 
them.  Whatever  the  proportion  may  be  which  predatory 
fish  bear  to  herbivorous,  the  quantity  of  both  must  be  enor- 
mous, for,  besides  the  infusoria,  the  great  forests  of  fuci  and 
sea- weed  are  everywhere  a  mass  of  infinitely  varied  forms  of 
being,  either  parasitical,  feeding  on  them,  seeking  shelter 
among  them,  or  in  pursuit  of  others. 


296  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  observations  of  Professor  E.  Forbes  in  the  Egean  Sea 
show  that  depth  has  great  influence  in  the  geographical  dis- 
tribution of  marine  animals.  From  the  surface  to  the  depth 
of  230  fathoms  there  are  eight  distinct  regions  in  that  sea, 
each  of  which  has  its  own  vegetation  and  inhabitants.  The 
number  of  shell-fish  and  other  marine  animals  is  greater  spe- 
cifically and  individually  between  the  surface  and  the  depth 
of  two  fathoms  than  in  all  the  regions  below  taken  together, 
and  both  decrease  downwards  to  the  depth  of  105  fathoms  ; 
between  which  and  the  depth  of  230  only  eight  shell-fish 
were  found  ;  and  animal  life  ceases  in  that  part  of  the  Medi- 
terranean at  300  fathoms.  The  changes  in  the  different 
zones  are  not  abrupt  ;  some  of  the  creatures  of  an  under 
region  always  appear  before  those  of  the  region  above  van- 
ish ;  and  although  there  are  a  few  species  the  same  in  some 
of  the  eight  zones,  only  two  are  common  to  all.  Those  near 
the  surface  have  forms  and  colours  belonging  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  southern  latitudes,  while  those  lower  down  are  ana- 
logous to  the  animals  of  northern  seas  ;  so  that  in  the  sea 
depth  corresponds  with  latitude,  as  height  does  on  land. 
Moreover,  the  extent  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  any 
species  is  proportional  to  the  depth  at  which  it  lives  ;  con- 
sequently, those  living  near  the  surface  are  less  widely  dis- 
persed than  those  inhabiting  deep  water.  Professor  Forbes 
also  discovered  several  shell-fish  living  in  the  Mediterranean 
that  have  hitherto  only  been  known  as  fossils  of  the  tertiary 
strata  ;  and  also  that  the  species  least  abundant  as  fossils  are 
most  numerous  alive,  and  the  converse  ;  hence  the  former 
are  near  their  maximum,  while  the  latter  are  approaching  to 
extinction.  These  very  important  experiments,  it  is  true, 
were  confined  to  the  Mediterranean  ;  but  analogous  results 
have  been  obtained  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  in  the  British 
seas.  There  are  four  zones  of  depth  in  our  seas,  each  of 
which  has  its  own  inhabitants,  consisting  of  shell-fish,  crus- 
tacese,  corallines,  and  other  marine  creatures.  The  first  zone 
lies  between  high  and  low-water  marks,  consequently  it  is 
shallow  in  some  places  and  30  feet  deep  in  others.  In  all 
parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere  it  presents  the  same  pheno- 
mena ;  but  the  animals  vary  with  the  nature  of  the  coast, 
according  as  it  is  of  rock,  gravel,  sand,  or  mud.  In  the  Bri- 
tish seas  the  animals  of  this  littoral  or  coast  zone  are  distri- 
buted in  three  groups  that  differ  decidedly  from  one  another, 


PROVINCES    OF    MARINE    LIFE.  297 

though  many  are  common  to  all.  One  occupies  the  seas  on 
the  southern  shores  of  our  islands  and  both  channels  ;  a  mid- 
dle group  has  its  centre  in  the  Irish  seas ;  and  the  third  is 
confined  to  the  Scottish  seas,  and  the  adjacent  coasts  of  Eng- 
land and  Ireland.  The  second  zone  extends  from  the  low- 
water  mark  to  a  depth  below  it  of  from  7  to  15  fathoms,  and 
is  crowded  with  animals  living  on  and  among  the  sea-weeds, 
as  radiated  animals,  shell-fish,  and  many  zoophytes.  In  the 
third  zone,  which  is  below  that  of  vegetable  life,  marine  ani- 
mals are  more  numerous  and  of  greater  variety  than  in  any 
other.  It  is  particularly  distinguished  by  arborescent  crea- 
tures, that  seem  to  take  the  place  of  plants,  carnivorous  mol- 
lusca,  together  with  large  and  peculiar  radiata.  It  ranges 
from  the  depth  of  15  to  50  fathoms.  The  last  zone  is  the 
region  of  stronger  corals,  peculiar  mollusca,  and  of  others  that 
only  inhabit  deep  water.  This  zone  extends  to  the  depth  of 
100  fathoms  or  more. 

Except  in  the  Antarctic  seas,  the  superior  zone  of  shell- 
fish is  the  only  one  of  which  any  thing  is  known  in  the  great 
oceans,  which  have  numerous  special  provinces;  but,  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Lyell,  nearly  all  the  species  of  molluscous 
animals  in  the  seas  of  the  two  temperate  zones  are  distinct, 
yet  the  whole  species  in  one  bears  a  strong  analogy  to  that 
in  the  other  ;  both  differ  widely  from  those  in  the  tropical 
and  arctic  oceans  ;  and,  under  the  same  latitude,  species 
vary  with  the  longitude.  The  east  and  west  coasts  of  tropi- 
cal America  have  only  one  shell-fish  in  common  ;  and  those 
of  both  differ  from  the  shell-fish  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific 
and  the  Gallipagos  Archipelago,  which  forms  a  distinct 
region.  Notwithstanding  the  many  definite  marine  pro- 
vinces, the  same  species  are  occasionally  found  in  regions 
widely  separated.  A  few  of  the  shell-fish  of  the  Gallipagos 
Archipelago  are  the  same  with  those  of  the  Philippine 
Islands,  though  so  far  apart.  The  east  coast  of  America, 
which  is  poor  in  shell-fish,  has  a  considerable  number  in 
common  with  the  coasts  of  Europe. 

The  larger  and  more  active  inhabitants  of  the  waters  obey 
the  same  laws  with  the  rest  of  the  creation,  though  the  pro- 
vinces are  in  some  instances  very  extensive.  Dr.  Richard- 
son observes,  that  there  is  one  vast  province  in  the  Pacific, 
extending  42°  on  each  side  of  the  equator,  between  the 
meridians    including   Australia,   New  Zealand,   the   Malay 


298  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Archipelago,  China,  and  Japan,  in  which  the  genera  are  the 
same  ;  but  at  its  extremities  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  genera 
are  mingled  with  the  tropical  forms.  Very  many  species  of 
the  Red  Sea  and  eastern  coast  of  Africa  range  to  the  Indian 
and  China  seas,  those  of  North  Australia,  and  all  Oceanica  ; 
the  continuous  chains  of  islands  being  favourable  to  their 
dispersion.  Few  of  the  Pacific  fish  enter  the  Atlantic;  and, 
from  the  depth  and  want  of  islands  in  the  latter,  the  great 
bulk  of  species  are  different  on  its  different  sides.  Many 
families  are  common  to  the  colder  seas  in  both  hemispheres; 
but  the  genera  are  mostly  different,  the  species  always. 

The  British  Islands  lie  between  two  great  provinces  of 
fishes — one  to  the  south,  the  other  to  the  north — from  each 
of  which  we  have  occasional  visitors.  The  centre  of  the 
first  is  on  the  coasts  of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  extending  into 
the  Mediterranean.  That  on  the  north  has  its  centre  about 
the  Zetland  Islands  ;  but  the  group  peculiarly  British,  and 
found  nowhere  else,  has  its  focus  in  the  Irish  Sea.  It  is, 
however,  mixed  with  fish  from  the  seas  bounding  the  west- 
ern shores  of  Central  Europe,  which  form  a  distinct  group. 

Prince  Canino  has  shown  that  there  are  853  species  of 
European  fish,  of  which  210  live  in  fresh  water,  643  are  ma- 
rine, and  60  of  these  go  up  rivers  to  spawn.  444  of  the 
marine  fish  inhabit  the  Mediterranean,  216  are  British,  and 
171  are  peculiar  to  the  Scandinavian  seas  ;  so  that  the  Medi- 
terranean is  richest  in  variety  of  species.  In  it  there  are 
peculiar  sharks,  sword-fish,  dolphins,  archovies,  and  six  spe- 
cies of  tunny,  one  of  the  largest  of  edible  fish,  for  which 
fisheries  are  established  in  Elba,  the  Straits  of  Messina,  and 
the  Adriatic.  Four  of  the  species  are  found  nowhere  else 
but  in  the  Mediterranean.  Rays  of  numerous  species  are 
particularly  characteristic  of  the  Mediterranean,  especially 
the  two  torpedos,  which  have  the  power  of  giving  an  elec- 
tric shock,  and  even  the  electric  spark.  The  Mediterranean 
has  two  or  three  American  species  ;  41  fish  in  common  with 
Madeira,  one  in  common  with  the  Red  Sea,  and  a  very  few^ 
seem  to  be  Indian.  Some  of  these  fish  must  have  entered 
the  Mediterranean  before  it  was  separated  from  the  Red  Sea 
by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  ;  but  geological  changes  have  had 
very  great  influence  on  the  distribution  of  fishes  everywhere. 
Taking  salt  and  fresh-water  fish  together,  there  are  100  spe- 
cies common  to  Italy  and  Britain  ;  and  although  the  com- 


MIGRATORY    FISH.  299 

raunication  with  the  Black  Sea  is  so  direct,  there  are  only 
27  fish  common  to  it  and  the  Mediterranean  ;  but  the  Black 
Sea  forms  a  district  by  itself,  having  its  own  peculiar  fish; 
and  those  in  the  Caspian  Sea  differ  entirely  from  those  in 
every  other  part  of  the  globe.  The  island  of  Madeira,  soli- 
tary amid  a  great  expanse  of  ocean,  has  many  species. 
They  amount  in  number  to  half  of  those  in  Britain  ;  and 
nearly  as  many  are  common  to  Britain  and  Madeira  as  to 
that  island  and  the  Mediterranean  ;  so  that  many  of  our  fish 
have  a  wide  range  in  the  Atlantic.  The  Mediterranean 
certainly  surpasses  the  British  and  Scandinavian  seas  in  va- 
riety, though  it  is  far  inferior  to  either  in  the  quantity  or 
quality  of  useful  fish.  Cod,  turbot,  haddock,  tusk,  ling,  her- 
ring, and  many  more,  are  better  in  northern  seas  than  else- 
where, and  several  exist  there  only. 

Whales  and  sharks  like  deep  water.  Different  species  of 
sharks  are  in  all  tropical  and  temperate  seas  ;  and,  although 
always  dangerous,  they  are  more  ferocious  in  some  places 
than  others,  even  where  of  the  same  species. 

The  greater  number  of  fish  used  by  man  as  food  frequent 
shoal  water.  The  coast  of  Holland,  our  own  shores,  and 
other  parts  of  the  North  Sea,  where  the  water  is  shallow, 
teem  with  a  never-ending  supply  of  excellent  fish,  of  many 

kinds. 

Vast  numbers  are  gregarious  and  migratory.  Cod  arrive 
in  the  shallow  parts  of  the  coast  of  Norway  in  February,  in 
shoals  many  yards  deep,  and  so  closely  crowded  together  that 
the  sounding-lead  can  hardly  pass  between  them:  16,000,000 
have  been  caught  in  one  place  in  a  few  weeks.  In  April 
they  return  to  the  ocean.  Herrings  come  in  astonishing 
quantities  in  winter  ;  and  lobsters  are  so  plentiful  among 
the  rocks  in  Norway,  that  many  hundred  thousands  are 
caught  every  year. 

The  principal  cod  fisheries  are  on  the  banks  of  Newfound- 
land and  the  Dogger-bank.  They,  like  all  animals,  frequent 
the  places  to  which  they  have  been  accustomed.  Herrings 
come  to  the  same  places  for  a  series  of  years,  and  then  desert 
them,  perhaps  from  having  exhausted  the  food.  Pilchards, 
mackerel,  and  many  others,  may  be  mentioned  among  the 
gregarious  and  migratory  fish. 

Most  lakes  have  fish  of  peculiar  species,  as  the  lake  Baikal. 
In  the  North  American  lakes  there  is  a  thick-scaled-fish,  analo- 


300  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

goustothoseof  the  early  geological  eras;  and  the  gillaroo  trout, 
which  is  remarkable  in  having  a  gizzard,  is  found  in  Ireland 
only.  Forty-four  fish  inhabit  the  British  lakes  and  rivers, 
and  fifty  those  of  Scandinavia,  of  the  very  best  kinds.  The 
fresh-water  fish  of  northern  climates  are  better  than  those  of 
the  southern,  as  salmon  of  various  species. 

Each  tropical  river  has  its  own  species  of  fish  ;  and  sea- 
fish,  in  immense  quantities,  frequent  the  estuaries  of  rivers 
everywhere.  The  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  is  full  of  fish  ; 
and  the  quantity  at  the  mouth  of  the  Don,  in  the  Sea  of  Azof, 
is  prodigious. 

There  are  some  singular  analogies  between  the  inhabitants 
of  the  sea  and  those  of  the  land.  Many  of  the  medusae,  two 
corallines,  the  sea-stag,  and  some  others,  sting.  A  cuttle- 
fish, at  the  Cape  de  Verde  islands,  changes  colour  like  the 
cameleon,  assuming  the  tint  of  the  ground  under  it.  Her- 
rings, pilchards,  and  many  other  fish,  as  well  as  sea  insects, 
are  luminous.  The  medusa  tribe,  the  species  of  which  are 
numerous,  have  the  faculty  of  shedding  light  in  the  highest 
degree.  In  warm  climates,  especially,  the  sea  seems  to  be 
on  fire,  and  the  wake  of  a  ship  is  like  a  vivid  flame.  Pro- 
bably fish  that  go  below  the  depths  to  which  the  light  of  the 
sun  penetrates  are  endowed  with  this  faculty  ;  and  shoals  of 
luminous  insects  have  been  seen  at  a  considerable  depth 
below  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  glow-worm,  some 
beetles,  and  fire-flies,  shine  with  the  same  pale  green  light. 
But  among  the  terrestrial  inhabitants  there  is  nothing  analo- 
gous to  the  property  of  the  gymnotus  electricus  of  South 
America,  the  trembler,  or  siUirius  electricus,  of  the  African 
rivers,  and  the  dififerent  species  of  the  torpedo  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, besides  many  others,  mostly  of  the  ray  kind,  in 
various  parts  of  the  world,  which  possess  the  faculty  of  giving 
the  electric  shock. 

The  marine  mammalia  form  several  families,  all  of  which 
suckle  their  young.  Fish  require  air  like  other  animals,  and 
obtain  it  from  the  water  by  means  of  their  gills  ;  but  as  the 
whale  family  are  not  fish,  they  are  obliged  to  come  to  the 
surface  of  the  sea  to  breathe,  which  they  do  through  nos- 
trils.* Fat  pervades  every  part  of  their  body  and  bones, 
which  makes  them  buoyant,  and  enables  them  to  float  with- 

*  Narrative  of  a  Whaling  Voyage,  round  the  World,  by  F.  D.  Bennett, 
Esq. 


MARINE    MAMMALIA.  301 

out  fatigue  or  effort  ;  and  their  blood  is  said  to  be  warmer 
than  that  of  land  animals,  so  that  they  can  bear  the  most 
intense  cold. 

The  first  family  of  the  whale  tribe  consists  of  herbivorous 
phocse,  as  lamantins  and  dugons,  and  of  predatory  phocee, 
as  seals,  and  the  morse  or  walrus,  all  of  which  have  teeth 
and  are  amphibious,  and  some  of  the  numerous  species  are 
found  in  every  sea  and  in  every  latitude,  but  the  herbivorous 
phocae  are  mostly  intertropical.  Lamantins  are  of  various 
sizes  and  kinds  ;  the  species  which  frequents  the  Antilles, 
the  Orinoco,  and  Amazons,  and  other  rivers  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  America,  generally  known  as  the  sea-cow,  is  about 
20  feet  long,  and  has  a  round  body,  not  unlike  a  sack  of 
wine.  It  browses  in  herds  on  the  herbage  at  the  bottom 
and  on  the  banks  of  streams,  and  when  attacked  the  mother 
defends  her  young  at  the  sacrifice  of  her  own  life,  and  the 
cub  follows  the  dead  body  to  the  shore,  so  both  fall  an  easy 
prey  to  the  hunters.  The  dugon  is  not  so  round  as  the 
lamantin,  and  has  a  bristled  snout  ;  diflferent  species  feed  in 
flocks  on  the  weeds  at  the  bottom  of  shallow  parts  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  the  Indian  Archipelago,  the  coasts  of  Africa, 
New  Holland,  and  the  Red  Sea,  and  never  enter  fresh  water. 
They  are  so  harmless  and  tame  that  they  allow  themselves 
to  be  handled,  and  they  sit  upright  when  they  suckle  their 
young,  which  has  given  rise  to  the  fable  of  the  Mermaid. 
This  animal  sacrifices  her  life  for  her  young  like  the  lamantin, 
and  is  the  type  of  maternal  affection  among  the  Malays. 
The  manatus  septentrionalis  is  the  only  herbiverous  seal 
that  is  found  in  the  Arctic  Ocean;  it  frequents  the  Spitz- 
bero;en  seas,  but  is  very  rare. 

The  favourite  haunts  of  the  predatory  seals  are  the  polar 
oceans  and  desert  islands  in  high  latitudes,  where  they  bask 
in  hundreds  on  the  sunny  shores  during  the  brief  summer  of 
these  inhospitable  regions,  and  become  an  easy  prey  to  man, 
w^ho  has  nearly  extirpated  the  race  in  many  places.  Six  or 
seven  species  of  seals  are  natives  of  Iceland,  and  two  or  tliree 
of  Greenland.  The  common  seal  is  six  or  seven  feet  long, 
with  a  face  like  that  of  a  dog,  and  a  large  intelligent  eye. 
It  is  easily  tamed,  and  in  the  Orkney  Islands  it  is  so  much 
domesticated  that  it  follows  its  master,  and  helps  him  to 
catch  fish.  This  seal  migrates  in  herds  from  Greenland 
twice  in  the  year,  and  returns  again  to  its  former  haunts  ; 
2J 


302  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

they  probably  come  to  the  coasts  of  Europe  and  the  British 
Islands  at  the  time  of  their  migrations,  but  the  phoca  vetulina 
is  a  constant  inhabitant  of  our  shores.  Some  of  the  seal 
tribe  have  a  very  wide  range,  as  the  fur  species,  arctoce- 
phalus  ursinus,  of  the  Falkland  Islands,  which  at  one  time 
frequented  the  southern  coasts  of  New  Holland  in  multi- 
tudes, but  they  and  three  other  species  have  now  become 
scarce  from  the  indiscriminate  slaughter  of  old  and  young. 
Sir  James  Ross  found  some  of  the  islands  in  the  Antarctic 
seas  overrun  with  the  sea  elephant  moremga  elephantina, 
and  they  captured  a  new  species  of  seal  without  ears.  The 
walrus  or  morse,  a  grim-looking  creature,  with  tusks  two 
feet  Ions  bent  downwards,  and  its  face  covered  with  trans- 
parent  bristles,  has  a  body  like  that  of  a  seal,  20  feet  long, 
with  a  coat  of  short  grey  or  yellow  hair.  It  sleeps  on  the 
floating  ice,  feeds  on  sea-weeds  and  marine  animals,  and 
never  leaves  the  Arctic  seas. 

The  second  family  of  marine  mammalia  consists  of  spouting 
whales  of  predatory  habits  ;    they   live   on   fish,  and   conse- 
quently  have    teeth,   such    as  porpoises,   dolphins  of  many 
kinds,   and    spermaceti    whales    or    cachelots  ;    these   have 
spouting  nostrils  in  the  upper  part  of  the  head.     The  com- 
mon porpoise  is  seen   spouting  and  tumbling  on  the  surface 
of  all  the   seas  of  Europe,  shoals  of  them   go   in  pursuit  of 
herrings  and  mackerel,  and  even  sw^im  up  the  rivers  in  chase 
of  salmon.      They  have  more  the  form  of  fish   than   the  seal 
tribe,  and  have  a  dorsal  fin.     The  common  dolphins,  so  re- 
markable for  voracity  and  for  the  sw^iftness  of  their  motions, 
which  is  owing  to  the  symmetry  of  their  form  and  the  width 
of  their  tail,  are  seen  in  almost  every  latitude  and   sea,  but 
probably  of  different  species.     The  white  dolphin,  eaten  by 
the  Icelanders,  is  18  feet  long,  and  migrates  from  the  Atlantic 
to    Greenland    in    the    end   of   November.      The    grampus, 
delphinus   orca,  possibly  the   same   with   the  killer  of  the 
South  Sea  whalers,  is  a  fierce  voracious  fish,  often  20  feet 
long,  wdiich   roams  in   numerous   shoals,  preying  upon   the 
larger  fish,  and   even   attacking   the  whale.     The   grind  or 
black  dolphin  has  been  known  to  run  ashore  in  hundreds  in 
the  bays  of  Feroe,  Orkney,  and  Zetland.     This  seems  to  be 
the  same  or  nearly  allied  to  the  black   fish,  which  was  met 
with  in  vast  numbers  by  Sir  James  Ross  in  the  Antarctic 
seas  :  they  had  so  little  fear,  that  they  darted  below  the  ship 


SPERMACETI    WHALES.  303 

on  one  side  and  came  up  at  the  other.  The  right  white 
porpoise,  delphinus  peronii,  of  the  southern  whalers,  is  a 
rare  and  elegant  species  of  dolphin  which  chiefly  inhabits 
the  high  southern  latitudes,  but  has  been  seen  at  the  equator 
in  the  Pacific.  They  are  about  six  feet  long,  the  hinder 
part  of  the  head,  the  back,  and  the  flukes  of  their  tail  are 
black,  and  ail  the  rest  of  the  purest  white.  The  narwhal  or 
sea  unicorn,  monodon  raonoceros,  has  no  teeth,  but  a  tusk 
of  fine  ivory  wreathed  with  a  spiral  grove  extending  eight 
or  ten  feet  straight  from  the  head  ;  in  general  there  is  only 
one  tusk,  but  there  are  always  the  rudiments  of  another,  and 
occasionally  both  grow  to  an  equal  length.  The  old  nar- 
whals are  white  with  blackish  spots,  the  young  are  dark- 
coloured.  This  singular  creature,  which  is  about  16  feet 
long  without  the  tusk,  swims  with  great  swiftness.  Mr. 
Scoresby  has  seen  15  or  20  at  a  time  playing  round  his  ship 
in  the  Arctic  seas,  and  crossing  their  long  tusks  in  all  direc- 
tions as  if  they  were  fencing  ;  they  are  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  Northern  Ocean. 

The  spermaceti  whale,  the  cachelot  or  physeter  macroce- 
phalus,  belonging  to  the  family  of  the  predaceous  spouters, 
is  one  of  the  most  formidable   inhabitants  of  the  deep.     Its 
average  size  is  60  feet  long  and  40  feet  in  circumference  ;  its 
head,  equal  to  a  third  of  its  length,  is  extremely  thick  and 
blunt  in  front,  with  a  throat  wide  enough  to  swallow  a  man. 
The  proportionally  small  swimming  paws  or  pectoral  fins  are 
at  a  short  distance  behind  the  head,  and  the  tail,  which  is  a 
horizontal  triangle  six  or  seven  feet  long,  and  19  feet  wide, 
with  a  notch  between  the  flukes,  is  the  chief  organ  of  progres- 
sive motion  and  defence.     It  has  a  hump  of  fat  on  its  back, 
is  of  a  dark  colour,  but  with  a  very  smooth  clean  skin.    These 
sperm  whales  have  one   nostril   on    the   top  of  their   head, 
through  which  they  throw  in  breathing  a  continued  succes- 
sion of  jets  like  smoke,  at  intervals  of  15  or  20  minutes,  after 
which  they  toss  their  tails  high  in  the  air  and   go  head  fore- 
most  to  vast  depths,  where  they  remain   for  an   hour  or  an 
hour  and   a  half,  and   then   return   again  to  the   surface   to 
breathe.     The  jet  or  spout  is  from  six  to  eight  feet  high,  and 
consists  of  air  expired  by  the  whale,  condensed  vapour,  and 
particles  of  water.    This  whale  has  sperm-oil  and  spermaceti 
in  every  part  of  its  body,  but  the  latter   is  chiefly  in  a  vast 
reservoir  in  its  head,  which  makes  it  very  buoyant,  and  am- 


304  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

bergris  is  sometimes  found  in  the  inside  of  the  body,  sup- 
posed to  be  from  disease.  These  huge  monsters,  occasion- 
ally 75  feet  long,  go  in  great  herds  of  500  or  600,  or  schools, 
as  the  "whalers  call  them.  Females  with  their  young,  and 
two  or  three  old  males,  generally  form  one  company,  and  the 
young  males  another,  while  the  old  males  feed  and  hunt 
singly.  The  sperm  whales  swim  gracefully  and  equally,  with 
their  head  above  the  water;  but  when  a  troop  of  them  play 
on  the  surface  of  the  water,  some  of  these  uncouth  and  gigantic 
creatures  leap  with  the  agility  of  a  salmon  several  feet  into 
the  air,  and  fall  down  again  heavily  with  a  tremendous  crash 
and  noise  like  a  cannon,  driving  the  water  up  in  lofty  columns 
capped  with  foam.  The  fishery  of  the  sperm  whale  is  at- 
tended with  great  danger;  not  only  the  wounded  animals, 
but  its  companions  who  come  to  its  aid,  sometimes  fight  des- 
perately, killing  the  whalers  and  tossing  them  into  the  air 
with  a  sweep  of  their  tremendous  tails,  or  biting  a  boat  in 
two.  In  1820  the  American  whaler  Essex  was  wrecked  in 
the  Pacific  by  a  sperm  whale ;  it  first  gave  the  ship  so  severe 
a  blow  that  it  broke  off  part  of  the  keel,  then  retreating  to  a 
distance,  it  rushed  furiously,  and  with  its  enormous  head 
beat  in  a  portion  of  the  planks,  and  the  pecple  had  just  time 
to  save  themselves  in  the  boats  when  the  vessel  filled.  They 
often  lie  and  listen  when  suspicious  of  mischief.  No  part  of 
the  aqueous  globe,  except  the  Arctic  seas,  is  free  from  their 
visits  ;  they  have  been  seen  in  the  Mediterranean,  the  British 
Channel,  and  even  the  Thames,  but  their  chief  resort  is  the 
deepest  parts  of  the  warmer  seas  within  or  near  the  tropics, 
and  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  where  they  feed  on  floating  shell- 
fish and  the  sepia  or  cuttle-fish. 

The  third  and  last  family  of  marine  mammalia  are  whale- 
bone whales,  such  as  the  Greenland  whales  and  rorquals. 
Instead  of  teeth,  the  jaws  of  these  animals  are  furnished  with 
plates  and  filaments  of  whalebone,  which  are  movable,  and 
are  adapted  to  retain,  as  in  a  net,  the  medusae  and  other  small 
marine  animals  that  are  the  food  of  these  colossal  inhabitants 
of  the  deep.  The  common  Greenland  species,  bala3na  mysti- 
cetus,  was  formerly  much  more  numerous,  but  it  is  now 
chiefly  confined  to  the  very  high  northern  latitudes;  however 
should  it  be  the  same  with  the  whale  found  in  such  multi- 
tudes in  shallow  water  on  the  coasts  of  the  Pacific  and  in  the 
Antarctic  Ocean  by  Sir  James  Ross,  it  must  have  a  very  wide 


RORQUALS.  305 

range,  but  it  is  more  probable  that  each  pole  has  its  own  spe- 
cies. The  Greenland  whale  is  from  65  to  70  feet  long,  but 
they  are  so  much  persecuted  that  they  probably  never  live 
lonof  enouofh  to  come  to  their  full  size.  The  head  is  very 
large,  but  the  opening  of  the  throat  is  so  narrow  that  it  can 
only  swallow  small  animals.  It  has  no  dorsal  fin  :  the  swim- 
ming paws  are  about  nine  feet  long,  and  the  flat  tail  is  half- 
moon  shaped  and  notched  in  the  middle.  It  has  two  spouts 
or  nostrils,  through  which  it  throws  jets  like  puffs  of  smoke 
some  yards  high.  It  only  remains  two  or  three  minutes  on 
the  surface  to  breathe,  and  then  goes  under  water  for  five  or 
six.  The  back  and  tail  are  velvet-black,  shaded  in  some 
places  into  grey,  the  rest  is  white  :  some  are  piebald.  The 
capture  of  this  whale  is  often  attended  with  much  cruelty, 
from  their  affection  for  their  young;  indeed  the  custom  of 
killing  the  calf  in  order  to  capture  the  mother  has  ruined  the 
fishery  in  several  places,  especially  in  New  Zealand,  where 
there  w^ere  eight  species  of  whales  in  vast  abundance. 

Rorquals  are  also  whalebone  whales,  differing  somewhat 
in  form  from  the  common  whale.  One  species  is  from  80 
to  100  feet  long,  the  largest  of  marine  animals.  The  bottle- 
nosed  whale,  a  smaller  species,  was  exceedingly  numerous 
in  the  Arctic  seas  ;  in  the  year  1809,  1100  were  stranded  in 
Huelfiord  in  Iceland.  This  whale  travels  to  lower  latitudes 
in  pursuit  of  herrings  and  other  fish.  It  had  been  caught  on 
the  coast  of  Norway  as  early  as  the  year  890,  and  probably 
long  before.  The  first  northern  navigators  were  not  attracted 
by  the  whale  as  an  object  of  commerce,  but  stumbled  upon 
it  in  their  search  for  a  north-west  passage  to  the  Pacific. 
The  hump-backed  whale,  balsena  gibbosa,  a  rorqual  30  or 
40  feet  long,  is  met  with  in  small  herds  in  the  intertropical 
and  southern  regions  of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  :  it  is  seldom 
molested  by  the  whalers,  and  is  very  dangerous  for  boats, 
from  the  habit  it  has  of  leaping  and  rising  suddenly  to  the 
surface.  None  of  the  senses  of  the  whale  tribe  are  very 
acute  ;  the  whalebone  whales  alone  have  the  sense  of  smell- 
ing, and  although  the  sperm  whale  is  immediately  aware  of 
a  companion  being  harpooned  at  a  very  great  distance,  they 
do  not  hear  well  in  air,  and  none  have  voice.* 

*  Captain  Scoresby's  Arctic  Voyages. 

26* 


306  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  REPTILES FROGS    AND  TOADS SNAKES,   SAU- 

RIANS,  AND  TORTOISES. 

Reptiles,  more  than  any  other  class  of  animals,  show  the 
partial  distribution  of  animated  beings,  because,  being   un- 
able to  travel  to  any  great  distance,  they  have  remained   in 
the  places  wherein  they  were  originally  stationed;   and   as 
they  inhabit  deserts,  forests,  and  uncultivated  ground,  they 
have  not  been  disturbed   by  man,  who  has  only  destroyed 
some  individuals,  but  has  not  diminished  the  number  of  spe- 
cies, which  is  probably  the  same  as  ever  it  was.     Few  of  the 
mammalia  hybernate,  or  fall  into  a  torpid  state  in  winter, 
except  the  bear,  marmot,  bats,  and  some  others.     Their  fat 
supplies  the  carbon  consumed   by  the  oxygen  during  their 
feeble  and  imperceptible  respiration,  and  is  wasted   by  the 
time  the  warm  weather  returns,  which  rouses  them  from  their 
lethargy,  thin  and  extenuated.     But  reptiles,  being  colder 
blooded, bury  themselves  in  the  ground, and  hybernate  during 
the  winter  in  cold  and  temperate  climates.    In  hot  countries, 
they  fall  into  a  state  of  torpor  during  the  dry  season,  so  that 
they  have  no  occasion  to  wander  either  on  account  of  tempe- 
rature or  want  of  sustenance;  and   the  few  that  do  migrate 
in  quest  of  food,  always  return  to  their  old  haunts.     As  the 
blood  of  reptiles  receives  only  a  small  part  of  the  oxygen  they 
inhale,  little  heat  and  strength  are   generated;  consequently 
they  are  cold-blooded,  and  for  the  most  part  sluggish  in  their 
motions,  which,  however,  are  more  varied  than   in  quadru- 
peds ;  but  as  some  reptiles,  as  tortoises  and  lizards,  breathe 
more  frequently  than  others,  there  are  consequently  great  dif- 
ferences in  their  energy  and  sensibility.     There  are  four  dis- 
tinct classes  of  reptiles — toads  and   frogs,  serpents,  lizards, 
and  tortoises.     These  partake  of  both  terrestrial  and  aquatic 
forms,  and  many  are  amphibious:  they  all  increase  in  num- 
bers towards  the  equator,  and  few  live  in  cold  climates. 

The  toad  and  frog  class  appoaches  nearest  to  the  nature  of 
fishes,  and  forms  a  link  between  land  and  water  animals. 


TOADS    AND-  FROGS.  307 

As  tadpoles  they.have  tails  and  no  feet,  but  when  full  grown, 
they  generally  acquire  feet  and  lose  their  tails.  Besides,  in 
that  early  stage  they  are  aquatic,  and  breathe  by  gills,  like 
fishes  ;  but  in  a  state  of  maturity  they  breathe  by  lungs,  like 
quadrupeds,  though  some  of  the  families  always  retain  their 
gills  and  tails,  and  some  never  acquire  feet.  These  animals 
have  the  power  of  retarding  and  accelerating  their  respira- 
tion without  stopping  the  circulation  of  their  blood,  so  that 
they  can  resist  heat  and  cold  to  a  certain  degree — a  power 
most  remarkable  in  the  salamander,  which  forms  part  of  this 
class,  so  varied  in  appearance  and  nature.  Some,  as  toads 
and  frogs,  imbibe  a  quantity  of  water,  which  is  evaporated 
through  their  skin  more  or  less  quickly.  This  keeps  them 
at  the  temperature  of  the  medium  they  live  in,  and  the  air 
they  inhale  through  the  skin  is  as  necessary  to  their  exist- 
ence as  that  which  they  breathe. 

The  group  of  toads  and   frogs  consists  of  four  families, 
which  have  four  feet,  but  neither  necks  nor  tails;   namely, 
frogs,  hylas  or  rainettes,  toads,  and  pipse.     Frogs,  which  are 
amphibious,  have  no  nails  on  their  toes,  and  their  hind  legs 
are  webbed,  consequently  fitted   for  swimming,  which  they 
do  by  leaps.     There  are  16  genera,  and  above  50  species, 
so  that  they  are  more  numerous  and  more  varied  than  any 
other  reptile.      Of  the  hyla,  rainette,  or  tree-frog,  there   are 
60  species,  all  of  the   most  vivid  and    brilliant  tints,   and 
several   colours  are  frequently  united  on  the   same  animal. 
They  spend  most  of  their  lives  on  high  trees,  and  their  webbed 
feet  have  little  cushions  at  the  points  of  their  toes,  by  means 
of  which  they  can  squeeze  out  the  air  from  under  their  feet, 
and,  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  they  adhere  firmly 
to  the  under  side  of  the  smoothest  leaf,  exactly  on  the  same 
principle  by  which  Hies  walk  on  the  ceiling  of  a  room.     The 
bufo,  or  toad,  is  the  ugliest  of  the  race;  many  are  hideous, 
with  swollen  bodies  and  obtuse  toes.     They  do  not  go  into 
water,  but   frequent    marshy,  damp  places,  and   only  crawl, 
whereas  the  frog  and  hyla  leap.     They  are  much  fewer  than 
either  of  the  other  two  families;  only  thirty  species  are  known. 
The  pipse  are  also  toads  of  a  still  more  disgusting  form,  and 
are  distinguished  from  their  congeners  by  having  no  tongue. 
There  are  only  two  species  known.     All  these  reptiles  have 
voices,  which  are  exceedingly  varied  ;  they  croak  in  concert, 
following  a  leader,  and  when  he  is  tired  another  takes  his 


308  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

place.  One  of  the  North  American  frogs  croaks  in  bands  ; 
one  band  begins,  another  answers,  and  a  third  replies,  till 
the  noise  is  heard  at  a  great  distance  ;  a  pause  then  takes 
place,  after  which  the  croaking  is  renewed.  Mr.  Darwin 
mentions  a  little  musical  hyla  at  Rio.  de  Janeiro,  which  croaks 
a  kind  of  harmony  in  different  notes. 

Toads  and  frogs  are  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  earth, 
though  very  unequally  and  partially  distributed.  America 
has  more  than  all  the  other  countries  taken  together,  and 
Europe  the  fewest.  Six  species  of  frogs,  one  rainette,  and 
two  toads,  are  European;  and  all,  except  four  of  the  frogs, 
are  also  found  in  Asia  and  Africa. 

The  law  of  circumscribed  distribution  is  strongly  marked 
in  Asia  ;  for  of  ten  species  of  frogs  peculiar  to  that  continent, 
three  only  are  in  the  mainland,  two  are  confined  to  Japan  ; 
and  of  the  five  that  are  Javanese,  one  is  also  common  to 
Amboina,  and  the  other  four  to  Bengal.  The  eight  species 
of  rainettes,  or  tree-frogs,  are  still  more  limited  in  their  domi- 
cile :  five  of  them  are  in  Java  only,  and  one  in  Japan. 
There  are  nine  species  of  toad  peculiar  to  Asia. 

None  of  these  reptiles  exist  in  the  Galapagos  Archipelago, 
nor  in  any  of  the  innumerable  islands  in  Oceanica,  and  there 
are  very  few  in  Australia,  but  all  peculiar.  In  Africa  there 
are  eight  species  of  frogs,  two  or  three  of  rainettes,  and  two 
of  toads.  One  of  the  two  species  of  pipas,  more  horrid  in 
appearance  than  any  toad,  is  very  common  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  there  only. 

The  great  extent  of  marshes,  rivers,  and  forests,  together 
with  the  heat  of  the  climate,  make  America  the  very  home 
of  reptiles  of  this  kind,  and  there  they  grow  to  a  greater 
size  than  anywhere  else  :  23  species  of  frog,  27  species  of 
tree-frog  or  rainette,  and  21  of  toads,  are  indigenous  in  that 
continent,  not  one  of  which  is  the  same  with  any  of  those  in 
the  old  world  ;  and  most  of  those  in  South  America  are  dif- 
ferent from  those  in  the  northern  part  of  the  continent, 
though  they  are  sometimes  replaced  by  analogous  kinds. 
All  these  reptiles  have  abodes,  with  fixed  demarcations, 
often  of  small  extent.  The  pipa,  or  toad  of  Surinam,  is  the 
most  horrid  of  the  tribe  ;  the  bufo  agua,  of  Brazil,  10  or  12 
inches  long,  and  the  rana  pipiens,  of  Carolina,  are  the 
largest. 

The  second  family  of  this  class  of  reptiles  have  tails  and 


SERPENTS.  309 

feet,  as  the  salamanders,  which  are  very  like  lizards,  with  a 
long  round  tail,  and  four  feet.  Some  are  terrestrial,  and 
some  are  aquatic  :  the  latter  are  known  as  tritons.  Both  are 
in  Europe,  but  the  greater  number  are  American  ;  and  the 
sirens  are  peculiar  to  the  marshes  and  rice-grounds  of  Caro- 
lina. They  are  very  like  eels  with  two  feet.  The  proteus 
anguinus  is  similar,  but  it  has  four  little  feet  and  a  flat  tail, 
and  has  been  found  nowhere  but  in  the  dark  subterraneous 
caverns  in  Carniola. 

The  third  family  of  this  class  of  reptiles  is  the  csecilise,  of 
which  there  are  only  eight  species,  all  inhabitants  of  the  warm 
parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  They  have  a  cylindri- 
cal body,  without  feet  or  neck,  and  move  exactly  as  the  ser- 
pent, so  they  seem  to  form  the  link  between  these  reptiles  and 
the  class  of  frogs  and  toads. 

There  are  serpents  in  all  hot  and  temperate  countries,  but 
they  abound  most  in  intertropical  regions  ;  and  wherever 
snakes  exist,  there  also  are  some  of  the  venomous  kinds, 
but  they  are  fewer  specifically  and  individually  than  is  gene- 
rally supposed.  Of  263  species,  only  57  are  venomous,  or 
about  one  in  five,  although  that  proportion  is  not  everywhere 
the  same.  In  sterile,  open  countries,  the  proportion  of  veno- 
mous snakes  is  greater  than  in  those  that  are  covered  with 
vegetation.  Thus,  in  New  Holland,  seven  out  of  ten  spe- 
cies are  poisonous  ;  and  in  Africa,  one  of  every  two  or  three 
individuals  is  noxious.  In  general,  however,  the  number  of 
harmless  individuals  is  20  times  as  great  as  the  number  of 
the  poisonous. 

The  three  great  families  of  venomous  serpents  are  the 
colubriform  or  adder-shaped  snakes,  sea-serpents,  and  the 
triangular-headed  snakes. 

The  adder-formed  snakes  are  divided  into  three  genera, 
the  elaps  tribe,  which  are  slender  like  a  cord,  with  a  small 
head  and  of  brilliant  colours.  There  are  four  species  in 
South  America,  of  which  two  are  confined  to  Guiana,  and 
one  to  Surinam,  while  the  other  is  found  everywhere  from 
Brazil  to  Carolina.  There  is  only  one  in  Africa,  three  in 
Australia,  and  the  rest  are  in  limited  districts  in  tropical  Asia, 
especially  in  Sumatra  and  Java  ;  and  an  entire  genus  is  found 
only  in  India,  and  the  islands  of  Ceylon  and  Java.  The 
hooded  snakes  are  the  best  known  of  this  family,  especially 
the   spectacled   or   dancing   snake   of  the   Indian  jugglers. 


3J0  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

which  is  common  everywhere  from  Malabar  to  Sumatra,  and 
two  other  species. are  only  in  Sumatra  and  Java.  The  three 
or  four  African  species  are  chiefly  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
and  on  the  Gold  Coast  ;  but  the  most  celebrated  is  that 
generally  known  as  the  Egyptian  asp,  w^hich  has  been  tained 
by  magicians  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  and  is  frequently 
figured  in  Egyptian  monuments;  it  derives  some  of  its  cele- 
brity from  Cleopatra's  death.  Two  of  the  family  inhabit 
New  Holland,  one  of  which  is  spectacled,  but  of  a  different 
species  from  that  in  India. 

All  the  seven  species  of  sea-snakes  are  very  venomous, 
and  more  ferocious  than  any  other.  They  frequent  the  In- 
dian Ocean  in  shoals  from  Malabar  to  the  Philippine  Islands, 
but  chiefly  the  Bay  of  Bengal  ;  they  never  enter  fresh  water, 
nor  do  they  ever  land. 

The   third    venomous  family   consists    of  the    triangular- 
headed  serpents,  rattle-snakes,  and  vipers.      The  first  are  of 
a  hideous  aspect, — a  large   head,  broad  at  the   base  like  a 
heart,  a   wide   mouth,   with    their   hooked    poisonous  fangs 
strongly  developed.     They   quietly  watch   their  prey  till   it 
is   within   reach,  then   dart   upon  it,  and   inflict  the  deadly 
wound  in  a   moment.      There  are  four  species  of  these  for- 
midable snakes  in  the  intertropical  parts  of  South  America, 
and  in  the  w^armer  parts  of  North  America.      One  species  in 
the  old  world Js  to  be  met  with  everywhere,  from  Ceylon   to 
the  Philippine  Islands  ;  one   is  a  native  in   Sumatra,  Timor, 
and  Celebes  ;  the  rest   are  narrowly  limited  in  their  abode  ; 
two  are  confined   to  Java   alone.     Ceylon,  Sumatra,  Japan, 
and  Tartary,  have  each  a  species  of  these  serpents  peculiar 
to  itself. 

The  rattle-snakes  are  all  American — two  in  the  warm  dis- 
tricts of  North  America,  and  two  in  the  intertropical  parts  of 
South  America.  One  of  the  latter,  how^ever,  has  a  hard 
horn  at  the  end  of  its  tail,  instead  of  a  rattle,  and  sometimes 
grows  to  the  length  of  10  feet,  being  the  longest  of  the  veno- 
mous snakes. 

Vipers  come  farther  north  than  any  other  of  the  noxious 
tribe  :  two  are  Asiatic,  though  one  is  also  common  to  Africa, 
which,  however,  has  four  peculiar  to  itself:  and  the  only 
venomous  serpents  in  Europe  are  three  species  of  viper,  one 
of  which  is  also  spread  over  the  neighbouring  parts  of  Asia 
and  Africa.     The  common  viper  inhabits  all  central  Europe 


BOAS PYTHONS.  311 

and  temperate  Asia,  even  to  Lake  Baikal,  in  the  Altai 
Mountains:  it  is  also  found  in  Eiigland  and  Sweden,  but  it 
does  not  go  farther  west  than  the  Seine,  nor  does  it  pass  the 
Alps.  One  which  frequents  dry  soils,  in  the  south-east  of 
Europe,  is  in  Styria,  Greece,  Dalmatia,  and  Sicily  ;  and  the 
aspic  viper,  which  lives  on  rocky  ground,  inhabits  France 
between  the  Seine  and  the  Pyrenees,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and 
Sicily. 

There  are  six  families  of  harmless  serpents,  consisting  of 
numerous  species.  Four  of  the  families  are  terrestrial,  their 
species  are  very  limited  in  their  domicile,  the  greater  num- 
ber being  confined  to  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  Ceylon,  or  to  circumscribed  districts  in  tropical 
Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  Nine  or  ten  species  are  Euro- 
pean, some  of  which  are  also  found  in  Asia  and  Africa. 

Tree-serpents  of  various  genera  and  numerous  species  live 
only  in  the  great  tropical  forests  of  Asia  and  America,  espe- 
cially in  the  latter.  They  are  long  and  slender,  the  head 
for  the  most  part  ending  in  a  sharp  point,  and  generally 
green,  though  there  are  some  of  brighter  colours  ;  many  of 
these  serpents  are  fierce,  though  not  venomous  ;  some  feed 
on  birds,  which  they  watch  hanging  by  the  tail  from  a 
bough. 

In  all  temperate  and  warm  countries  abounding  in  lakes 
and  rivers,  fresh-water  snakes  are  numerous  ;  some  live  in 
the  water,  but  they  mostly  inhabit  the  banks  near  it ;  they 
are  excellent  swimmers,  and  may  be  seen  crossing  lakes  in 
shoals.  America  is  particularly  rich  in  them  ;  there  are 
several  in  Europe  and  Asia,  but  they  are  rare  in  Africa,  and 
none  have  been  yet  discovered  in  Australia. 

,The  boa  is  peculiarly  American,  though  some  smaller  in 
size  and  differing  in  species  are  found  in  Asia.  The  boa 
constrictor,  generally  from  9  to  12  feet  long,  lives  in  the 
great  tropical  forests  of  South  America,  where  it  watches  its 
prey  hanging  from  the  boughs  of  trees.  Two  of  smaller  size 
have  similar  habits,  and  two  are  aquatic,  one  of  which  is 
sometimes  20  feet  long,  and  another  6  feet ;  the  latter  in- 
habits the  rivers  from  the  Amazons  to  Surinam. 

Pythons  are  the  largest  snakes  of  the  eastern  world  ;  one 
species,  which  sometimes  grows  to  the  length  of  20  feet,  is 
spread  from  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  throughout  inter- 
tropical  Asia  to  Java  and    China.     Another,  only  14  feet 


312  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

long,  is  confined  to  Malacca  and  some  of  the  Sunda  Islands. 
Two  others  are  found  only  in  the  islands  of  Timor  and 
Saparua,  and  one  in  New  Holland.  There  are  only  two 
species  of  acrochordi,  which,  like  boas,  and  pythons,  twist 
themselves  round  their  victims  and  crush  them  to  death : 
one  aquatic,  peculiar  to  Java  ;  the  other  is  a  land  snake, 
found  everywhere  through  India  to  New  Guinea. 

The  West  Indian  Islands  have  the  snakes  of  North  and 
South  America,  and  some  peculiar  ;  the  snakes  of  central 
America  are  little  known. 

Saurians  have  representatives  in  every  warm  and  tem- 
perate climate.  The  crocodile,  from  its  size  and  ferocity, 
claims  the  first  place.  There  are  three  genera  of  this  family, 
all  amphibious,  living  in  rivers:  the  crocodile,  common 
to  the  old  and  new  continents  ;  the  caiman,  or  alligator, 
peculiar  to  America  ;  and  the  gavial,  which  comes  nearer 
to  the  form  of  the  fossil  crocodile  than  any  other,  is  limited 
to  the  Ganges  and  other  great  rivers  of  India.  The  various 
species  of  crocodiles  are  confined  to  local  habitations  :  three 
are  Asiatic  ;  two  African,  one  of  which  is  only  in  Sierra 
Leone;  two  are  peculiar  to  Madagascar  ;  and  in  America 
there  are  two  species  of  crocodiles  and  five  of  alligators. 
The  American  crocodiles  inhabit  the  estuaries  of  great  rivers  ; 
the  alligator  never  leaves  fresh  water. 

The  alligators  of  the  Mississippi,  and  of  the  rivers^  and 
marshes  of  Carolina,  are  more  ferocious  than  those  of  South 
America,  attacking  men  and  animals;  they  only  prey  in 
the  night;  while  in  the  water,  they  cannot  swallow  their 
food,  but  they  drown  the  animal  they  have  caught,  hide  it 
under  water  till  it  is  putrid,  and  then  bring  it  to  land  to 
eat  it.  Locality  has  considerable  influence  on  the  nature 
and  habits  of  these  animals  ;  in  one  spot  they  are  very  dan- 
gerous, while  in  another,  at  no  great  distance  they  are 
cowardly.  Alligators  are  rarely  more  than  15  feet  long,  and 
are  seen  in  great  companies  basking  on  the  banks  of  rivers  : 
their  cry  is  like  the  roar  of  a  bull ;  in  a  storm  they  bellow  loudly, 
and  are  said  to  be  much  afraid  of  some  of  the  whale  family 
that  ascend  the  great  American  rivers.  The  female  watches 
her  eggs  and  her  young  for  months,  never  losing  sight  of 
them  ;  but  the  male  devours  many  of  them  when  they  go 
into  the  water.  All  animals  of  this  class  are  covered  with 
scales,  those  of  the  crocodile  family  are  hard  and  impenetrable. 


LIZARDS. 


313 


Lizards  are  chiefly  distinguished  from  crocodiles  by  having 
a  long,  thin,  forked  tongue  like  that  of  the  viper  ;  by  their 
rapid  motions,  smaller  size  ;  and  by  some  peculiarities  of 
form. 

The  monitors,  which  are  entirely  confined  to  the  old  conti- 
nent, have  the  tail  compressed  laterally,  which  enables  them 
to  swim  rapidly  ;  and  they  are  furnished  with  strong  sharp 
teeth.  Many  species  inhabit  Africa  and  India,  especially 
the  Indian  Archipelago  :  the  terrestrial  crocodile  of  Hero- 
dotus is  common  on  the  deserts  round  Egypt ;  and  an 
aquatic  species  in  the  Nile,  which  devours  the  crocodile's 
eggs,  is  often  represented  on  the  ancient  Egyptian  monu- 
ments. 

Another  group  of  the  monitor  family  is  peculiarly  Ameri- 
can ;  some  of  the  species  inhabiting  the  marshes  in  Guiana 
are  six  feet  long. 

Lizards  are  very  common  ;  more  than  eight  or  nine 
species  are  European :  and  the  iguanians,  which  differ 
from  them  only  in  the  form  of  the  tongue,  are  so  nume- 
rous in  genera  and  species,  that  it  would  be  in  vain  to 
attempt  to  follow  all  their  ramifications,  which  are,  never- 
theless, distributed  according  to  the  same  laws  with  other 
creatures:  but  the  dragons,  only  found  in  India,  are  too 
singular  to  be  passed  over.  The  dragon  is  in  fact  a  lizard 
with  wings  of  skin,  which  are  spread  along  its  sides  and 
attached  to  its  fore  and  hind  feet,  like  those  of  the  bat,  and 
though  they  do  not  enable  it  to  fly,  they  act  like  a  parachute 
when  the  animal  leaps  from  bough  to  bough  in  pursuit  of 
insects.  Nocturnal  lizards  of  many  species  inhabit  the  hot 
countries  of  both  continents ;  they  are  not  unlike  sala- 
manders, but  they  have  sharp  claws,  which  they  can  draw 
in  and  conceal  like  those  of  a  cat,  and  seize  their  prey. 
One  of  this  species  climbs  on  walls  in  all  the  countries  round 
the  Mediterranean.  Chameleons  are  to  be  seen  under  every 
bush  in  North  Africa  ;  and  different  species  inhabit  different 
districts  and  islands  in  Asia  ;  the  only  one  that  is  European 
lives  in  Spain;  it  is  also  common  to  North  Africa. 

The  anolis,  which  lives  on  trees,  replaces  the  chameleon 

in  the  hot  regions  of  South   America,  and  in  the   Antilles, 

having  the  property  common  to  chameleons  of  changing  its 

colour,  but  it  is  a  more   nimble   and   beautiful  animal.     In 

27  ^  - 


314  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

New  Holland,  where    every  thing  is  anomalous,  there  is  a 
lizard  with  a  leaf-shaped  tail. 

Skinks  are  exactly  like  serpents,  with  four  very  short  feet 
and  sharp  nails  on  their  claws,  which  burrow  in  the  sands  of 
Africa  and  Arabia :  there  is  a  species  of  gigantic  black  and 
yellow  skinks  in  New  Holland,  and  those  in  the  islands  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago  are  green,  with  blue  tails. 

Two  anomalous  saurians  of  the  genus  amblyrhinchus  were 
discovered  by  Mr.  Darwin  in  the  Galipagos  Archipelago. 
One  found  only  in  the  central  islands  is  terrestrial,  and  in 
many  places  it  has  undermined  the  ground  with  its  burrows  ; 
the  other  is  the  only  lizard  known  that  lives  on  sea- weed, 
and  inhabits  the  sea  ;  it  is  about  four  feet  long,  and  hideously 
ugly,  with  feet  partially  webbed  and  a  tail  compressed  late- 
rally. It  basks  on  the  beach,  and  in  its  marine  habits  and 
food  it  resembles,  on  a  small  scale,  the  huge  monsters  of  a 
former  creation. 

Tortoises  are  covered  with  a  shell  or  buckler,  but  their 
heads,  legs,  and  tail  are  free,  covered  with  a  wrinkled  skin, 
and  the  animal  can  draw  them  into  the  shell  when  alarmed. 
The  head  is  sometimes  defended  by  a  regular  shield,  and  the 
jaws,  instead  of  teeth,  have  a  horny  case.  The  upper 
buckler  is  rounded,  and  formed  of  eight  pairs  of  plates  sym- 
metrically disposed,  and  often  very  beautiful  ;  the  under 
shell  is  flat,  and  consists  of  four  pair  of  bones  and  one  in 
the  centre.  One  family  of  tortoises  is  terrestrial,  two  others 
are  amphibious,  one  of  which  lives  in  fresh  water,  the  other 
in  tropical  and  warm  seas. 

There  are  more  land  tortoises  in  Africa  than  in  all  the 
rest  of  the  world,  both  specifically  and  individually.  There 
are  several  European  species,  of  which  the  Greek  tortoise, 
common  in  all  the  countries  round  the  Mediterranean,  is  the 
largest,  being  about  a  foot  long  ;  it  lives  on  insects  and  vege- 
tables, and  burrows  in  the  ground  in  winter.  Some  of  the 
East  Indian  species  are  enormously  large,  above  three  feet 
long,  and  remarkable  for  the  beautiful  distribution  of  their 
colours ;  some  species  are  peculiar  to  Brazil,  one  to  Demarara, 
and  one  to  North  America. 

There  are  two  families  of  the  fresh-water  tortoises  that  live 
in  ponds  and  ditches.  The  emys  is  very  numerous  in  Ame- 
rica ;  there  are  15  species  peculiar  to  the  northern  part  of  the 
continent,  and  four  to  the  southern  :  only  one  has  been  found 


DISTRIBUTION    OF    REPTILES.  315 

in  Africa,  two  in  Europe  and  eight  in  Asia,  South  iVmerica 
is  the  country  of  the  chelydse,  which  feed  only  when  in  the 
water  ;  there  are  none  ia  North  America,  five  in  Africa,  and 
one  in  Australia. 

The  trionyx,  or  fresh-water  turtle,  lives  in  the  great  rivers 
and  lakes  in  warm  countries  ;  there  are  two  species  peculiar 
to  North  America  :  they  are  very  large,  eat  birds,  reptiles, 
and  young  crocodiles,  and  often  are  a  prey  to  old  ones. 
One  is  peculiar  to  the  Nile,  one  to  the  Euphrates,  but  the 
Ganges  is  their  principal  abode  ;  there  are  four  species  which 
are  constantly  seen  eating  the  bodies  of  the  natives  that  are 
thrown  into  this  sacred  stream  ;  one  of  these  turtles  often 
weighs  240  pounds.  The  starred  trionyx  is  in  the  rivers  of 
Java  onlv,  and  another  kind  is  common  also  to  the  rivers  of 
Borneo  and  Sumatra. 

The  cheloniadse,  or  sea  turtle,  live  in  the  seas  of  the  torrid 
and  temperate  zones,  to  the  50th  parallel  of  latitude,  some 
eating  algae,  and  others  molluscas  and  radiated  fish.  Dif- 
ferent species  are  found  in  different  parts  of  the  ocean.  The 
green  turtle,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties,  inhabits 
the  intertropical  Atlantic  ;  they  are  seen  in  shoals  eating 
sea-weed  at  the  bottom  of  the  water  along  the  coast,  but 
they  come  to  the  mouth  of  rivers  to  lay  their  eggs  in  the 
sand.  This  turtle  is  often  six  or  seven  feet  long,  and  weighs 
600  or  700  pounds;  it  is  much  esteemed  for  food,  but  the 
shell  is  of  no  value.  There  are  two  species  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, which  are  only  valued  for  the  oil. 

With  respect  to  the  whole  class  of  reptiles  it  may  be  ob- 
served, that  not  one  species  is  common  to  the  old  and  new 
world,  and  few  are  common  to  North  and  South  America; 
those  in  New  Holland  are  altogether  peculiar  ;  and,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Marianne  Islands,  there  are  neither  toads, 
frogs,  nor  snakes  in  any  of  the  islands  of  Oceanica,  though 
the  Indian  Archipelago  abounds  in  them. 

Five  species  of  reptiles  only  had  reached  Ireland  before 
its  separation  from  England,  a  lizard,  a  frog,  a  toad,  and  two 
tritons. 


316  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

DISTRIBUTION    OF    BIRDS  IN    THE    ARCTIC  REGIONS IN  EUROPE, 

ASIA,  AFRICA,  AMERICA,   AND  THE  ANTARCTIC  REGIONS. 

There  is  great  similarity  in  the  birds  of  the  northern  parts 
of  the  old  and  new  continents,  and  many  are  identical. 
Towards  the  south,  the  forms  differ  more  and  more,  till  in 
the  tropical  and  south  temperate  zones  of  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America  they  become  entirely  different,  whole  families  and 
genera  often  being  stationary  within  very  narrow  limits. 
Some  birds,  however,  are  almost  universal,  especially  birds 
of  prey,  waders,  and  sea-fowl. 

The  bald  buzzard  is  in  every  country,  from  Europe  to 
Australia ;  the  Chinese  gosshawk  inhabits  the  American 
continent,  and  every  station  between  China  and  the  west 
coast  of  Europe  ;  the  peregrine  falcon  lives  in  Europe, 
America,  and  Australia  ;  the  common  and  purple  herons  are 
indigenous  in  the  old  continent  and  the  new  ;  and  the  flamingo 
fishes  in  almost  every  tropical  river.  Many  of  the  sea-fowl 
also  are  widely  spread  :  the  wagel-guU  is  at  home  in  the 
northern  and  southern  oceans,  and  on  the  coasts  of  Australia. 
Captain  Beechey's  ship  was  accompanied  by  pintadoes  during 
a  voyage  of  5000  miles  in  the  Pacific  ;  and  even  the  common 
house-sparrow  is  as  much  at  home  in  the  villages  in  Bengal 
as  it  is  in  Britain.  Many  more  instances  might  be  given, 
but  they  do  not  interfere  with  the  general  law  of  special 
distribution. 

Birds  migrate  to  very  great  distances  in  search  of  food, 
passing  th€  winter  in  one  country  and  the  summer  in  another, 
many  breeding  in  both.  In  cold  climates  insects  die  or 
hybernate  during  winter  ;  between  the  tropics,  they  either 
perish  or  sleep  in  the  dry  season  :  so  that,  in  both  cases, 
insect-eating  birds  are  compelled  to  migrate.  When  the 
ground  is  covered  with  snow,  the  want  of  corn  and  seeds 
forces  those  kinds  whose  food  is  vegetable  to  seek  it  else- 
where ;  and  in  tropical  countries  the  annual  inundations  of 
the  rivers  regulate  the  migrations  of  birds  that  feed  on  fish. 


MIGRATION    OF    BIRDS.  317 

Some  migrate  singly,  some  in  groups,  others  in  flocks  of 
thousands  ;  and,  in  most  instances,  the  old  and  the  young 
birds  go  separately.  Those  that  fly  in  company  generally 
have  a  leader,  and  such  as  fly  in  smaller  numbers  observe 
a  certain  order.  Wild  swans  fly  in  the  form  of  a  wedge, 
wild  geese  in  a  line.  Some  birds  are  silent  in  their  flight, 
others  utter  constant  cries,  especially  those  that  migrate  during 
night,  to  keep  the  flock  together,  as  herons,  goat-suckers, 
and  rails. 

Birds  of  passage  in  confinement  show  the  most  insur- 
mountable disquietude  when  the  time  of  migration  draws 
near.  The  Canadian  duck  rushes  impetuously  to  the  north 
at  the  usual  period  of  summer  flight.  Redbreasts,  gold- 
finches, and  oriols,  brought  from  Canada  to  the  United  States 
when  young,  dart  northwards,  as  if  guided  by  the  compass, 
as  soon  as  they  are  set  at  liberty.  Birds  return  to  the  same 
place  year  after  year.  Storks  and  swallows  take  possession 
of  their  former  nests,  and  the  times  of  their  departure  are 
exact  even  to  a  day.  Various  European  birds  spend  the 
winter  in  Asia  and  Africa  ;  while  many  natives  of  these 
countries  come  to  Central  Europe  in  summer. 

The  birds  of  passage  in  America  are  more  numerous,  both 
in  species  and  individually,  than  in  any  other  country. 
Ducks,  geese,  and  pigeons  migrate  in  myriads  from  the 
severity  of  the  northern  winters  ;  and  when  there  is  a  failure 
of  grain  in  the  south,  dirferent  families  of  birds  go  to  the 
north.  The  Virginian  partridge  crosses  the  Delaware  and 
goes  to  Pennsylvania,  when  grain  is  scarce  in  New  Jersey  ; 
but  it  is  so  heavy  on  the  wing,  that  many  fall  into  the  river, 
and  end  the  journey  by  swimming.  The  same  thing  happens 
to  the  wild  turkey,  which  is  caught  in  hundreds  as  it  arrives 
wet  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  Missouri,  and  Mississippi. 
These  birds  are  not  fitted  for  long  flight  by  their  structure, 
because  their  bones  have  fewer  of  those  air-cells  which  give 
buoyancy  to  the  feathered  tribes.  The  number  of  air-cells 
is  greatest  in  birds  that  have  to  sustain  a  continued  and 
rapid  flight  ;  probably  the  extremes  are  to  be  met  with  in 
the  swift  and  the  ostrich — the  one  ever  on  the  wing,  the  other 
never.  The  strength  of  the  ostrich  is  in  the  muscles  of  its 
legs  ;  while  the  muscles  on  the  breast  of  the  swift  weigh 
more  than  all  the  rest  of  the  body  :  hence  it  flies  at  the  rate  of 
100  miles  an  hour  easily.  The  wild  duck  and  the  wild  pigeon 
27* 


318  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

fly  between  400  and  500  miles  in  a  day.  The  stork  and 
some  other  migratory  birds  do  not  halt  till  the  end  of  their 
journey.  Many  sea-fowl  are  never  seen  to  rest  ;  and  all  the 
eagles,  vultures,  and  hawks  are  birds  of  strong  flight  and 
capable  of  sustaining  themselves  at  heights  beyond  the  reach 
of  less  buoyant  creatures. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  ARCTIC  AND  EUROPEAN 

BIRDS. 

The  birds  of  Europe  and  North  America  are  better  known 
than  those  of  any  part  of  the  globe.  New  species  are  con- 
stantly discovered  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  South  America  :  and 
extensive  regions  in  the  east  are  yet  unexplored  :  however, 
about  6000  have  already  been  described. 

There  are  503  species  of  birds  in  Europe,  many  of  which 
are  distributed  over  Asia  and  Africa,  without  any  apparent 
variation  ;  and  100  of  our  European  species  are  also  in  North 
America.  Of  these,  39  are  land-birds,  28  waders,  and  62 
water-fowl  ;  among  which  are  most  of  the  marine  birds  of 
northern  Europe,  which,  like  all  sea-fowl,  have  a  wider 
range. 

More  than  three-fourths  of  the  species,  and  a  much  larger 
proportion  of  individuals,  of  the  birds  of  Greenland,  Ice- 
land, and  Feroe,  are  more  or  less  aquatic,  and  many  of  the 
remainder  are  only  occasional  visitors.  Of  the  few  small 
birds,  the  greater  number  are  British  ;  but  many  that  reside 
constantly  in  Britain  are  migratory  in  Iceland  and  Feroe, 
and  all  the  small  birds  leave  Greenland  in  winter.  The 
aquila  albicilla,  or  cinereous  eagle,  is  the  largest  bird  of 
these  northern  islands  ;  it  feeds  on  salmon  and  trout,  and 
builds  its  nest  on  the  boldest  crags.  The  jer-falcon,  or  falco 
Icelandicus,  though  native,  is  rare  even  in  Iceland.  The 
snowy  owl  lives  near  the  glaciers  in  the  interior  of  Green- 
land, and  is  sometimes  seen  in  Orkney.  Particular  kinds  of 
grouse  are  peculiar  to  high  latitudes,  as  the  ptarmigan  and 
the  white  grouse.  The  columba  a^nas  lives  on  all  the  rocky 
coasts  of  Europe,  and  it  is  also  an  American  bird.  The 
crow  family  are  inhabitants  of  every  part  of  the  globe.  The 
common  crow  is  universal  ;  the  carrion-crow  and  jackdaw 
are  all  over  Europe  and  North  America.     The  magpie   is 


SWANS EIDER-DUCKS.  319 

everywhere  in  Europe.  The  jay,  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
birds  of  its  tribe,  is  found  in  Europe,  North  America,  and 
China.  The  raven  is  everywhere,  from  Greenland  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  from  Hudson's  Bay  to  Mexico  ;  it 
is  capable  of  enduring  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  is 
larger,  stronger,  and  more  ravenous  in  the  Arctic  islands 
than  anywhere  else.  It  destroys  sheep  and  lambs,  drives 
the  eider-ducks  from  their  nest  to  take  their  eggs  or  young, 
and  they  unite  in  flocks  to  chase  intruding  birds  from  their 
abode. 

Waders  are  more  numerous  than  land-birds  in  the  Arctic 
regions.  The  snipe  is  a  resident  ;  the  golden  plover  is  in 
Feroe  only  ;  and  the  oyster-catcher  remains  all  the  year  in 
Iceland  :  it  makes  its  nest  near  streams,  and  w^ages  war  with 
the  crow  tribe.  The  heron,  curlew,  plover,  and  most  of  the 
other  w^aders,  emigrate. 

Web-footed  birds,  being  clothed  with  down  and  oily  fea- 
thers, are  best  able  to  resist  the  cold  of  a  polar  climate. 
The  cygnus  musicus,  or  whistling  swan,  is  the  largest  migra- 
tory bird  of  Europe  or  America.  It  is  five  feet  long  from 
the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  and  eight  feet  from 
tip  to  tip  of  the  wings:  its  plumage  is  pure  W'hite,  tinged 
orange  or  yellow  on  the  head.  Some  of  them  winter  in 
Iceland  ;  and  in  the  long  Arctic  night  their  song  is  heard, 
as  they  pass  in  flocks  :  it  is  like  the  notes  of  a  violin.  Vari- 
ous species  of  the  duck  tribe  live  in  the  far  north,  in  prodi- 
gious multitudes.  The  mallard,  supposed  to  be  the  origin 
of  our  tame  duck,  is  everywhere  in  the  Arctic  lands.  There 
are  two  species  of  the  eider-duck :  the  king  duck,  or  somateria 
spectabilis,  one  of  these,  is  widely  dispersed  over  the  islands 
and  coasts  of  the  North  Atlantic  ;  it  lives  in  the'  open  sea  in 
winter,  and  resorts  to  the  coast  when  the  grass  begins  to 
grow.  The  duck  makes  her  nest  of  sea-weed,  lined  with 
down  from  her  breast.  The  islanders  take  the  eggs  and 
down  twice  in  the  season  ;  but  they  do  not  kill  the  old  birds, 
because  the  down  of  a  dead  duck  is  of  no  value,  having  lost 
its  elasticity.  The  third  time  the  drake  repairs  the  nest  with 
down  from  his  breast :  the  birds  are  allowed  to  hatch  their 
brood  ;  and,  as  soon  as  the  young  can  feed  themselves,  they 
are  taken  out  to  sea  by  the  duck.  They  attain  maturity  in 
four  years,  and  then  measure  two  feet  from  tip  to  tip  of  the 
wing.     The  same  couple  has  been  known  to  frequent  a  nest 


320  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

20  years,   and   the   Icelanders   think  the   eider-duck  lives 
to  100. 

The  cormorant  is  universal  in  the  northern  seas,  and, 
though  living  on  fish,  it  is  eaten  by  the  natives.  It  sits 
singly,  or  sometimes  in  flocks,  on  the  rocks,  watching  the 
fish  with  its  keen  eye:  it  plunges  after  them,  and  pursues 
them  for  three  or  four  minutes  under  water.  Auks  are  very 
numerous,  especially  the  razor-billed  auk,  or  penguin  ;  but 
the  great  auk,  which  is  incapable  of  flight  with  its  little  wings, 
is  now  extinct  in  the  Arctic  islands.  The  tern  or  sea-swal- 
low^, is  seen  everywhere  in  these  seas,  skimming  along  the 
surface  of  the  water,  catching  molluscas  and  small  fish. 
Gulls  of  many  species,  and  in  countless  numbers,  are  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions.  No  birds  are 
more  widely  dispersed.  They  are  at  home,  and  brave  the 
storm,  in  every  latitude  and  in  every  sea;  but  those  in  the 
north  are  said  to  be  larger  and  more  numerous  than  else- 
where. There  are  nine  or  ten  species  in  the  Arctic  regions, 
and  the  most  numerous  of  these  probably  are  the  kitty  wakes, 
the  young  of  which  cover  the  rocks  in  Iceland,  packed  so 
closely  together,  that  50  are  killed  at  a  shot. 

The  skua  is  one  of  the  boldest  and  most  rapacious  of 
birds,  forming  a  link  between  gulls  and  birds  of  prey.  It 
lives  by  robbing  other  birds,  and  is  so  audacious  that  it 
forces  the  gulls  to  disgorge  the  fish  they  have  swallowed, 
and  has  been  seen  to  kill  a  pufhn  at  a  single  blow.  Its  head- 
quarters are  in  Feroe,  Zetland,  and  the  Hebrides,  where  it 
hatches  its  brood,  and  attacks  men  or  animals  if  they  come 
near  them. 

Several  kinds  of  petrels  inhabit  the  Arctic  islands.  They 
take  their  name  from  the  faculty  they  have  of  walking  on  the 
water,  which  they  do  by  the  aid  of  their  wings.  The  stormy 
petrel,  the  most  widely  diffused,  is  about  the  size  of  a  lark, 
and  nearly  of  the  colour  ;  their  flight  is  rapid  ;  they  shelter 
themselves  from  the  storm  in  the  hollow  of  a  wave,  and  go 
to  land  only  at  the  breeding  season. 

It  is  observed  that  all  birds  living  on  islands  fly  against 
the  wind  when  they  go  to  sea,  so  as  to  have  a  fair  wind  when 
they  return  home  tired.  The  direction  of  the  prevailing 
winds,  consequently,  has  great  influence  on  the  choice  of 
their  abode  :  for  example,  the  25  bird-rocks,  or  Vogel-berg, 
in  Feroe,  face  the  west  or  north-west ;  and  no  bird  frequents 


GREGARIOUS    MARINE    BIRDS.  321 

the  cliffs  facing  the  east,  though  the  situation  is  to  all  appear- 
ance equally  good  ;  a  preference  accounted  for  by  the  preva- 
lence of  westerly  wind  in  these  latitudes. 

Most  marine  birds  are  gregarious.  They  build  their  nests 
on  the  same  rock,  and  liv^e  in  society.  Of  this  a  curious  in- 
stance occurs  on  the  rocks  in  question.  The  Vogel-berg  lies 
in  a  frightful  chasm  among  the  cliffs  of  Westmannshaven  in 
Feroe.  The  chasm  is  encompassed  by  rocks  1000  feet  high, 
and  myriads  of  sea-fowl  cluster  round  the  top  of  the  crags  ; 
but  different  kinds  have  separate  habitations  ;  and  no  race  or 
individual  leaves  his  own  quarters,  or  ventures  to  intrude 
upon  his  neighbours. 

Upon  some  low  rocks,  scarcely  rising  above  the  surface  of 
the  water,  sits  the  glossy  cormorant  ;  the  predatory  skuas, 
on  a  higher  shelf,  are  anxiously  regarded  by  myriads  of 
kittywakes  on  nests  in  crowded  rows  along  the  shelving 
rock  above,  with  nothing  visible  but  the  heads  of  the 
mothers  almost  touching  one  another  ;  the  auks  and  guille- 
mots are  seated  a  stage  higher  on  the  narrow  shelves,  in 
order  as  on  a  parade,  with  their  w^hite  breasts  facing  the  sea, 
and  in  absolute  contact.  The  puffins  form  the  summit  of 
this  feathered  pyramid,  perched  on  the  highest  station,  and 
scarcely  discernible  from  its  height,  if  they  did  not  betray 
themselves  by  flying  backwards  and  forwards.  Some  of 
these  tribes  have  a  watch  posted  to  look  out  for  their  safety  ; 
and  such  confidence  has  the  flock  in  his  vigilance,  that  if  he 
is  taken  the  rest  are  easily  caught.  When  the  whole  take 
flight,  the  ear  is  stunned  by  their  discordant  screams.* 

The  greater  part  of  the  marine  birds  of  the  Arctic  seas  are 
inhabitants  also  of  the  northern  coasts  of  the  continent  of 
Europe  and  of  the  British  Islands. 

No  part  of  Europe  is  richer  in  birds  than  Britain,  both  in 
species  and  numbers  of  individuals;  and  the  larger  game  is. 
so  abundant,  that  no  one  thinks  of  eating  nightingales  and 
redbreasts.  Of  the  503  species  of  European  birds,  277  are 
native  in  our  islands.  The  common  grouse,  the  yellow  and 
pied  wagtails,  and  the  English  starling,  are  found  nowhere 
else.  Most  of  the  British  birds  came  from  Germany  before 
the  separation  of  our  island  from  the  continent,  and  many  of 
short  flight  never  reached  Ireland.  The  ptarmigans  and 
capercaily  came  from  Norway. 

*   Trevelyan's  Travels  in  Iceland  and  the  Feroe  Islands. 


322  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

There  are  five  European  vultures  :  the  lamraergeyer  of 
the  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  the  largest  of  these,  builds  its  nest  in 
the  most  inaccessible  parts  of  the  mountains,  and  is  seldom 
seen  ;  it  lives  also  in  the  mountains  of  Abyssinia  and  on  the 
Mongolian  steppes.  Ten  eagles  are  European  ;  one  is  pecu- 
liar to  Sardinia  ;  and  several  of  them  are  common  in  America: 
the  golden  eagle  is  one  ;  that  beautiful  bird,  which  once 
gave  a  characteristic  wildness  to  our  Scotch  mountains,  and 
the  distinguishing  feather  to  the  bonnet  of  our  chieftains,  is 
now  nearly  extirpated.  The  osprey  or  fishing  eagle  is 
equally  an  inhabitant  of  Europe  and  America,  and  so  are 
some  of  our  numerous  hawks  ;  among  others  the  jer  or  gen- 
til  falcon  has  been  so  much  destroyed,  that  it  is  now  rare  even 
in  Iceland,  its  native  place  :  there  are  still  a  few  in  Scotland, 
and  several  are  caught  in  their  migratory  flight  over  the  Low 
Countries,  and  reclaimed  by  the  expert  falconers  for  the  now 
nearly  obsolete  sport  of  falconry. 

The  owl  tribe  is  numerous,  and  many  of  them  are  very 
handsome.  The  bubo  maximus,  the  great  owl,  the  largest 
of  nocturnal  birds,  inhabits  the  forests  of  middle  and  south- 
ern Europe  ;  it  is  rare  in  France  and  England,  though  not 
uncommon  in  Ireland  and  Orkney:  in  Italy  a  smcdl  owl  is 
tamed  and  used  as  a  decoy. 

Owls,  eagles,  and  hawks  have  representatives  in  every 
country,  but  of  different  species.  The  tw^o  species  of  European 
goat-suckers  migrate  to  Africa  in  winter;  their  peculiar  cry 
may  be  heard  on  a  moonliglit  night  when  a  large  flock  takes 
wing  for  the  journey.  Several  of  our  swallows  go  to  Africa  : 
both  our  kingfishers  are  African,  and  only  visit  us  in  sum- 
mer ;  one,  the  alcyone  ispida,  is  a  native  of  Lower  Egypt 
and  the  Red  Sea.  Some  of  the  seven  species  of  European 
creeping  birds,  or  certhias,  creep  on  the  trunks  and  branches 
of  trees  in  search  of  insects  ;  others  pursue  their  prey  clinging 
to  the  face  of  rocks  and  walls,  supported  by  the  stiff  elastic 
feathers  of  the  tail  :  the  hoopoe,  an  inhabitant  of  southern 
Europe,  is  also  a  creeper,  but  it  pursues  small  reptiles  and 
insects  on  the  ground. 

The  Sylvias  and  thickbilled  birds  are  by  much  the  most 
characteristic  of  Europe  ;  to  them  belong  our  finest  song- 
sters. The  Sylvias  have  soft  beaks,  and  feed  on  insects  and 
worms  ;  the  nightingale,  thrush,  blackbird,  wren,  the  bec- 
cafico,  the  smallest  of  European  birds,  the  warblers,  white- 


PIGEONS GALLINACEOUS    BIRDS.  323 

throat,  and  others,  are  of  this  family.  Thick-billed  birds 
live  on  seed,  as  the  goldfinch  and  other  finches,  linnets, 
larks,  buntings,  and  crossbeaks. 

Four  species  of  fly-catchers  are  peculiar  to  Europe,  and  five 
species  of  shrikes.  Ravens,  crows,  jays,  and  magpies,  are 
everywhere  ;  the  Alpine  crow  and  nutcracker  are  in  central 
Europe  only.  Conipared  with  America  the  starling  family  is 
poor,  and  the  woodpecker  race  still  more  so,  yet  we  have  six 
species,  some  of  which  are  very  beautiful.  There  is  only  one 
cuckoo  entirely  European, the  other  two  kinds  only  come  acci- 
dentally, and  all  are  birds  of  passage.  There  are  four  species 
of  the  pigeon  tribe  ;  the  ringdove  frequents  the  larch  forests, 
and  is  migratory  ;  the  stockdove  also  leaves  us  in  October ; 
the  biset  or  rock  pigeon,  supposed  to  be  the  origin  from  which 
the  infinite  variety  of  our  domestic  pigeons  has  sprung,  flies 
in  flocks,  and  makes  its  flimsy  nest  on  trees  and  rocks;  it  is 
also  found  in  the  Da-ouria  part  of  the  Altai  chain.  Of  gal- 
linaceous birds  there  are  many  ;  the  only  native  pheasant  is 
in  the  southwestern  parts  of  the  continent  ;  and  the  caper- 
caily,  extinct  in  the  British  forests,  inhabits  many  parts  of 
Europe,  in  Scandinavia  especially  it  is  plentiful  as  far  as  the 
pine-tree  grows,  which  is  nearly  to  Cape  North,  and  also  in 
the  Russian  forests.  The  hazel-grouse  frequents  the  pine 
and  aspen  forests  in  central  and  northern  Europe,  where  the 
black  cock  also  is  plentiful.  Five  species  of  grouse  and  six 
of  partridges  afford  abundance  of  game  ;  four  of  the  latter 
are  confined  to  the  southern  parts  of  the  continent,  and  so 
are  the  sand  and  pen-tailed  grouse,  which  form  a  separate 
family  ;  the  former  inhabits  the  sterile  plains  of  Andalusia 
and  Granada,  and  the  latter  the  stony  uncultivated  parts  of 
France,  southern  Italy,  and  Sicily.  The  ortigis  gibraltarica 
is  a  peculiar  bird  allied  to  the  grouse  family,  found  in  the 
south  of  Europe  only. 

European  waders  are  very  numerous,  and  among  them 
there  are  specimens  of  all  the  genera:  woodcocks,  snipes, 
plovers,  curlews,  and  grebes,  are  very  abundant,  and  herons 
of  various  species  ;  three  of  them  are  egrets  or  crested  herons, 
and  the  common  heron  now  assembles  on  the  tops  of  trees 
unmolested,  since  the  progress  of  agriculture  has  rendered 
the  country  unfit  for  hawking.  Several  cranes  and  storks, 
and  two  species  of  ibis,  are  European  :  the  flamingo  is  met 
with  in  the  south-eastern  parts  of  the  continent,  and  in  the 


324  PHYSICAL    GEOGKAPHY. 

maremme  on  the  east  coast  of  Italy.  Many  of  the  \va;11ng 
tribes,  however,  migrate  in  winter.  The  stork,  so  great  a 
favourite  in  Holland  that  it  is  specially  protected,  is  a  w;^n- 
derer ;  it  retreats  to  Asia  Minor,  and  on  the  return  of  sum- 
mer resumes  its  old  nest  on  a  chimney-top,  breeding  in  both 
countries.  Europe  is  particularly  rich  in  web-footed  birds  ; 
there  are  four  species  of  wild  swans,  four  of  wild  geese,  and 
more  than  30  of  the  duck  tribe,  including  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Arctic  seas. 


BIRDS  OF  ASIA  AND  THE  INDIAN  ARCHIPELAGO. 

European  birds  are  widely  spread  over  Asia;  most  of  the 
Arctic  sea-fowd  frequent  its  northern  coasts  :  between  50  and 
60  European  birds  are  also  Siberian,  and  there  are  above  70 
European  species  in  Japan  and  Corea,  which  probably  are 
also  inhabitants  of  Siberia  and  the  Altai  Mountains,  and  se- 
veral are  identical  with  the  birds  of  North  America,  so  that 
the  same  affinity  prevails  in  the  feathery  tribes  of  the  Arctic 
regions  as  in  the  vegetable  productions. 

Asia  Minor  is  a  country  of  transition,  and  many  European 
birds  inhabit  the  Caucasus,  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
and  Persia.  Moreover  these  warmer  climates  are  the  winter- 
quTirters  of  various  European  species. 

In  Asia  Minor,  and  especially  in  Armenia,  the  number  and 
variety  of  birds  is  very  great ;  large  eagles,  vultures,  falcons, 
buzzards,  quails,  partridges,  starlings,  herons,  storks,  cranes, 
legions  of  Arctic  grebes,  swans,  wild  geese,  ducks  and  peli- 
cans, are  natives  of  these  countries;  besides  singing-birds, 
the  nightingale,  the  constant  theme  of  the  poet's  song,  abounds 
in  Persia  :  hawks  are  trained  for  hunting  deer  in  that  coun- 
try, and  the  Asiatic  partridges,  or  francolins,  more  vividly 
coloured  than  ours,  differ  also  in  having  beaks  fitted  for  dig- 
ging up  bulbous  roots,  which  is  their  food  in  the  deserts. 

Farther  east  the  types  become  more  Indian  ;  the  great  pe- 
ninsulas on  each  side  of  the  Ganges  are  the  habitations  of  the 
most  peculiar  and  the  most  gorgeous  of  birds.  Many  spe- 
cies, and  some  entire  genera,  of  kingfishers  are  here,  of  the 
gaudiest  colouring ;  the  plumage  of  the  lly-catchers  has  the 
richest  metallic  lustre  ;  and  the  shrikes,  of  a  sober  hue  with 
us,  are  there  decked  in  the  brightest  colours  :  the  drango  has 


BIRDS    OF    ASIA.  325 

a  coat  of  ultramarine,  and  the  calyptomene  has  one  of  eme- 
rald green. 

The  large-beaked  climbing-birds  are  singularly  handsome. 
The  great  green  parrot,  so  easily  taught  to  speak,  has  inha- 
bited the  Indian  forests  and  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  time 
out  of  mind,  with  a  host  of  family  connections  and  congeners 
of  every  colour;  not  one  species  of  these,  or  indeed  of  the 
whole  parrot  tribe,  is  common  to  Asia,  Africa,  America,  or 
Australia,  nor  even  to  any  two  of  these  great  continents. 
They  are  vividly  coloured  in  India,  but  the  cuckoo  tribe 
rivals  them  ;  several  genera  of  these  birds  exist  nowhere  else, 
as  the  large-beaked  malcahos,  the  coucals  with  their  stiff 
feathers,  and  the  couroucous  or  trogons,  dressed  in  vermi- 
lion and  gold  ;  the  last,  however,  also  inhabit  other  tropical 
climates. 

Eastern  Asia  is  distinguished  by  the  variety  of  its  galli- 
naceous birds  and  the  gorgeousness  of  their  plumage.  To 
this  country  we  owe  some  of  our  domestic  fowls  ;  the  cock 
and  hen,  and  two  species  of  peacock,  are  wild  in  the  woods 
in  India  and  Ceylon.  The  polyplectron,  the  only  bird  of  its 
kind,  and  the  trogopons,  are  Indian  ;  and  some  of  the  most 
brilliant  birds  of  the  East  are  among  the  pheasant  tribe,  of 
which  five  species  are  peculiar  to  China  and  Tibet.  There 
are  various  species  of  the  horned  pheasant  in  the  Himalaya, 
and  one  whose  feathers  have  a  metallic  lustre.  The  gold, 
the  silver,  and  Reeves'  pheasant,  the  tail-feathers  of  which 
are  four  feet  long,  belong  to  China.  The  lophophorus  re- 
fulgens,  and  some  others  of  that  genus,  are  altogether  Indian. 

The  pigeons  also  are  very  splendid  in  their  plumage;  they 
mostly  belong  to  China  and  Japan ;  those  in  the  Birman 
Empire  are  green. 

It  would  be  vain  to  enumerate  the  fine  birds  that  range  in 
the  forests,  or  fish  in  the  rivers  of  the  Asiatic  continent,  yet 
the  birds  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  far  surpass  them  in  splen- 
dour of  plumage;  these  islands  indeed  are  the  abode  of  the 
most  gorgeously  arrayed  birds  in  existence.  Even  in  Java 
and  Sumatra,  though  most  similar  to  India  in  their  winged 
inhabitants,  there  are  many  peculiar,  especially  12  or  13  spe- 
cies of  the  climbing  tribe,  and  several  of  the  honey-sucking 
kind;  but  the  dissimilarity  increases  with  the  distance,  as  in 
New  Guinea  and  its  islands,  where  the  honey-sucking  genera 
are  developed  in  novel  forms  and  sumptuous  plumage. 
28 


326  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

In  the  various  islands  of  the  archipelago  there  are  altoge- 
ther at  least  15  genera,  with  their  numerous  species,  found 
there  only.  There  are  the  cnssicans,  which  resemble  jays, 
with  plumage  of  metallic  lustre;  the  only  two  species  of  pi- 
rolls,  one  bright  violet,  the  other  of  brilliant  green  ;  various 
species  of  calaos  with  large  horned  beaks,  oriols  of  vivid  co- 
lours, the  swallow  that  builds  the  edible  nest,  and  every  va- 
riety of  birds  of  paradise  ;  the  most  numerous  and  splendid 
sylvans,  and  all  the  species  but  one  of  the  philedons  or  honey- 
sucking  birds  with  tongues  that  end  in  a  brush.  The  pigeons 
are  peculiarly  beautiful  and  numerous,  but  limited  in  their 
abode.  The  gouroa,  or  great  crowned  pigeon,  the  largest 
of  its  tribe,  is  an  inhabitant  of  Borneo.  Each  island  has  its 
own  species  of  louries,  which  exist  nowhere  else;  many  pe- 
culiar paroquets  and  cockatoos,  couroucous  or  trogons,  cou- 
cals,  and  the  barbu,  with  huge  beaks,  are  all  peculiar  to  these 
islands.  Even  the  partridges  have  thrown  aside  their  grave 
colours  and  assumed  the  vivid  hues  of  the  tropics,  as  the 
green  and  tufted  cryptonex.  But  the  other  gallinaceous 
birds  far  surpass  them,  as  the  fire  and  the  argus  pheasant,  and 
two  or  three  species  still  more  splendid,  with  a  host  of  other 
birds  already  known,  and  multitudes  which  Europeans  never 
have  seen,  in  the  deep  jungles  and  impenetrable  forests  of 
these  unexplored  islands.  The  casuary,  a  bird  akin  to  the 
ostrich,  without  the  power  of  flying,  but  fleet  in  its  course, 
has  a  wide  range  in  these  countries,  and,  though  destitute  of 
beauty,  is  interesting  from  its  peculiar  location  and  the  cha- 
racter of  the  whole  race. 


AFRICAN  BIRDS. 

A  great  number  of  European  birds  are  also  inhabitants  of 
Africa,  and  many  migrate  there  in  winter,  yet  the  birds  of 
this  continent  are  very  peculiar  and  characteristic  ;  those  in 
the  north  and  north-east,  and  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  are 
best  know^n,  but  the  greater  part  of  tropical  Africa  is  still  un-- 
explored.  It  may  be  observed,  generally,  that  the  tropical 
birds  differ  from  those  of  North  Africa,  but  are,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  the  same  with  those  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
continent,  and  the  whole  of  Africa  south  of  the  desert  differs 
in  species  from  those  of  north  and  western  Africa  and  from 


BIRDS    OF    AFRICA. 


327 


Europe.  Moreover,  there  is  a  strong  analogy,  though  no 
affinity,  between  the  birds  of  Africa  and  America  in  the 
same  parallels  of  latitude  ;  there  is  not  a  single  perching 
bird  common  to  the  two,  though  some  of  the  rapacious  are 

in  both. 

There  are  59  species  of  birds  of  prey,  of  which  a  few  are 
also  European.     The  secretary  bird   is  the  most  singular  of 
this  order:  it  is  a  vulture  which  preys  upon  serpents  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  Abyssinia,  and  other  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent.    Africa  possesses  at  least  300  species  of  the  passerine 
order,  of  which  10  genera,  with  all  their  species,  are  pecu- 
liarly its  own.     The  swallows  are  more  beautiful  than  ours, 
especially  the  cecropis  striata,  with  two  tail-feathers  twice  as 
long  as  its  body.     Many  kingfishers,  the  most  beautifully 
coloured  of  their  brilliant  race,  frequent  the  lakes  and  rivers; 
four  speciesof  hoopoes,  one  of  which  visits  Europe  in  summer, 
are  natives  ;  and  the  honey-birds,  the  representatives  of  the 
humming-birds  of  South  America,  are   peculiarly  African. 
They  abound  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  the  necta- 
ries of  proteas  and  other  plants  produce  the  saccharine  juice 
which  is  their  food.    The  malurus  Africanus,  and  many  other 
singing-birds  for  the  most  part  unknown  elsewhere,  inhabit 
the  forests.     The  canary-bird   is  confined  to  the  Canary  Is- 
lands ;  its  song  differs  in  different  parts,  and  even  in  two  ad- 
jacent districts:  there  are,  however,  other  instances  of  this. 
The  capirote,  also  indigenous  in  the  Canary  Islands,  is  a  finer 
songster,  but  it  cannot  be  tamed.     Various  shrikes  are  pecu- 
liar to  Africa,  but  the  species  known  as  the  grand  baratra  is 
confined  to  the  Azores.    There  are  several  birds  of  the  raven 
tribe,  or  nearly  akin  to  them  :    as  the  lampratornis  superba  ; 
another  with  purple  wrings,  the  buphaga,  the  only  bird  of  its 
genus  ;  and  several  species  of  the  calaos.    The  weaving-bird, 
or  textor,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  graminivorous 
tribe  ;  it  w^eaves  its  nest  with  grass  and  twigs  very  dexter- 
ously: one  brought  to  Europe  wove  a  quantity  of  thread 
among  the  wires  of  its  cage,  with  great  assiduity,  into  a  strong 
texture.     The  widow-bird,  the  calious,  the  blue  bee-eater, 
and  all  the  tly-catching    touracous,  with   many  species  of 
woodpeckers,  are  found  nowhere  else.     The  parrots  and  pa- 
roquets, which  swarm  in  the  tropical  forests,  from  the  size  of 
a  hen  to  that  of  a  sparrow,  are  of  original  forms.     The  tro- 
gons,  or  couroucous,  the  most  beautiful  of  the  large-beaked 


328  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

climbing-birds,  are  the  same  as  in  Asia;  but  the  barbu  and 
the  four  species  of  barbicans  are  altogether  African,  and  so 
are  some  of  the  cuckoos.  Among  the  latter  are  two  species 
of  the  cuculus  indicator,  so  named  from  indicating  where  the 
bees  have  their  nests  ;  one  is  peculiar  to  Abyssinia,  the  other 
to  the  interior  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  and  mocking-birds 
are  spread  over  a  wnde  extent  of  this  continent. 

There  are  at  least  13  species  of  African  pigeons  ;  and  to 
Africa  we  are  indebted  for  the  guinea-fowl,  of  which  there 
are  three  or  four  kinds:  it  wanders  in  flocks  of  hundreds 
among  the  brushw^ood  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes  in 
Numidia  and  all  the  tropical  regions,  and  they  are  even 
more  abundant  in  Madagascar.  Many  grouse  and  partridges 
are  peculiar,  especially  the  gangas,  of  which  there  are  five 
species  :  some  go  in  coveys,  and  others  traverse  the  deserts 
in  flocks  of  many  hundreds.  The  sand-grouse,  one  of  this 
family,  is  much  more  abundant  on  the  arid  deserts  of  North 
Africa  than  in  Europe;  and  the  partridges  of  this  country 
are  francolins  which  feed  on  bulbous  roots. 

The  ostrich  takes  the  wide  range  of  Africa  and  Arabia  ; 
the  bird  of  the  desert,  and  bustards,  also  wanderers  in  the 
plains,  are  numerous  :  the  most  peculiar  are  the  rhaad  and 
the  Otis  kori,  in  South  Africa,  five  feet  high,  and  remarkable 
for  the  brilliancy  of  its  eye. 

Waders  of  infinite  variety  inhabit  the  rivers,  lakes,  and 
marshes — woodcocks,  snipes,  plovers,  storks,  cranes,  herons, 
and  spoonbills.  The  most  peculiar  are  the  dromes  and 
marabous,  whose  feathers  form  a  considerable  article  of  com- 
merce ;  the  cream-coloured  plover,  the  scopus  or  umbrette, 
the  water-treader  of  Abyssinia,  and  the  tantalus  tribe,  among 
which  is  the  falcinellus,  known  in  Africa  only,  and  the  ibis, 
once  held  sacred  in  Egypt,  and  frequently  found  in  mummies 
in  the  catacombs. 

Swimming-birds,  are  no  less  numerous :  the  bernicla 
cyanaptera  is  a  goose  peculiar  to  Shoa  ;  the  rhynchops  and 
pelicans,  several  of  the  duck  kind  or  birds  allied  to  them, 
are  found  nowhere  else. 

BIRDS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

Of  471  species  of  North  American  birds,  about  100  are  also 
found  in  Europe,  the   greater  number  of  which  are  water- 


BIRDS    OF    NORTH    AMERICA.  329 

fowl,  and  those  common  to  the  northern  coasts  of  both  con- 
tinents. The  sea-fowl  on  the  North  Pacific  and  Behring's 
Straits  are  very  much  the  same  with  those  in  the  Greenland 
seas  and  the  North  Atlantic,  but  the  great  awk  or  penguin, 
with  featherless  wings,  still  exists  on  the  North  Pacific,  and 
the  great  albatross,  seldom  seen  in  the  North  Atlantic,  fre- 
quents Behring's  Straits  and  the  western  coasts  of  North 
America  in  immense  flocks.  It  is  almost  universal  in  the 
Pacific  and  in  the  stormy  regions  towards  each  pole.  Like 
Mother-Cary's-chickens,  it  is  a  bird  of  the  storm,  sailing 
calmly  on  its  huge  wings  in  the  most  tremendous  tempests, 
and  following  a  ship  a  whole  day  without  resting  on  the 
waves  :  it  is  the  largest  of  sea-fowls  ;  some  measure  17  feet 
from  tip  to  tip  of  the  wings. 

There  is  no  vulture  common  to  the  two  continents,  but 
there  are  five  eagles,  half  of  the  other  birds  of  prey,  a  fourth 
part  ot'  the  crow  tribe,  several  waders  and  web-footed  birds 
which  inhabit  both  ;  yet  the  general  character  of  North 
American  birds  is  different  from  that  of  European  :  81 
American  generic  forms  and  two  families  are  not  found  in 
Europe.  The  humming-birds  are  altogether  American; 
only  four  species  are  in  North  America  ;  one  of  these  is 
migratory,  and  another  is  common  to  South  America.  The 
parrot  family,  distributed  with  generic  differences  in  almost 
all  tropical  countries,  has  but  one  representative  here,  which 
lives  in  the  forests  of  the  Carolinas.  Europe  has  nothing 
analogous  to  these  two  families.  It  is  singular  that  a  country 
wath  so  many  rivers  and  lakes  should  possess  only  one  king- 
fisher. The  woods  are  filled  with  many  species  of  creeping 
birds,  and  there  are  68  peculiar  species  of  sylvias  and  fly- 
catchers ;  among  others  the  todus  viridis,  which  forms  a 
genus  by  itself.  Ravens,  crows,  pies,  and  jays  abound,  and 
there  are  13  species  of  starlings.  The  finch  tribe  are  very 
numerous,  and  there  are  16  species  of  woodpeckers,  as  might 
be  expected  in  a  country  covered  with  forests.  Of  pigeons 
there  are  eight  species,  but  individually  they  are  innume- 
rable, especially  the  columba  migratoria,  which  passes  oyer 
Canada  and  the  northern  States  in  myriads  for  successive 
days  twice  in  the  year.  The  poultry-yard  is  indebted  to 
North  America  for  the  turkey,  which  there  ranges  wild  in 
its  native  woods  and  attains  great  size.  There  are  no  par- 
tridges, and  of  13  American  species  of  grouse  three  are 
28* 


330  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

European,  a  family  which  exists  in  every  country  under  dif- 
ferent forms.  The  vast  expanse  of  water  and  marshy  ground 
makes  North  America  the  home  of  water-fowl  and  waders 
without  end.  Most  of  the  waders  and  graminivorous  birds 
are  migratory  ;  in  winter  they  find  no  food  north  of  the  great 
lakes,  where  the  ground  is  frozen  upwards  of  six  months  in 
the  year.  Many  pass  the  winter  in  California,  as  storks  and 
cranes  ;  wild  geese  cover  acres  of  ground  near  the  sea,  and 
when  they  take  wing  their  clang  is  heard  far  off*.  Blackbirds 
are  as  numerous  ;  even  gulls  and  other  northern  sea-fowl 
come  to  the  coasts  of  California,  and  indeed  to  the  shores  of 
all  the  north  and  temperate  Pacific. 

It  may  be  said  generally  that,  with  regard  to  the  w^eb- 
footed  tribe.  North  America  possesses  specimens  of  all  the 
genera  of  the  old  world  and  many  peculiarly  its  own.  The 
table-land  of  Mexico  has  some  peculiar  forms,  and  some 
species  of  swimming-birds  found  only  in  more  northern  lati- 
tudes ;  but,  except  the  ampelida^,  there  are  representatives 
of  every  group  of  North  and  South  America. 


BIRDS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

The  tenants  of  the  air  in  South  America  differ  more  from 
those  in  North  America  than  these  do  from  the  birds  of 
Europe  :  there  are  not  more  than  50  or  60  species  in  com- 
mon. South  America  has  a  greater  variety  of  original  forms 
than  any  other  country  ;  more  than  25  genera  with  all  their 
species  inhabit  that  country  only  ;  of  the  passerine  family 
alone  there  are  at  least  1000  species,  all  peculiar.  The  vul- 
tures are  of  different  genera  from  those  in  Europe  :  the 
condor  of  the  Andes  is  the  larojest  of  these  :  it  is  so  fierce 
that  it  even  attacks  the  puma,  the  lion  of  America  ;  it  fre- 
quents the  highest  pinnacles  of  the  Andes  in  summer,  and 
soars  to  the  height  of  1 5,000  feet  above  the  earth.  In  winter 
it  descends  in  groups  to  feed  on  the  plains  and  sea-shore  ; 
and,  like  all  the  vulture  race,  it  possesses  the  faculty  of 
descrying  a  dead  or  dying  animal  long  before  it  is  itself 
visible  in  the  air  :  it  never  goes  beyond  the  isthmus  of 
Panama:  the  condor  of  California  is  a  smaller  bird.  The 
three  species  of  the  vultur  papa,  or  king  of  the  vultures,  are 
remarkable  for  the  bright  blue  and  vermilion  colour  of  the 


BIRDS    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA.  331 

head  and  neck;  the  black  vulture  lives  in  large  assemblies 
on  the  tops  of  high  trees  in  the  sylvas,  and  another  nume- 
rous species  prey  on  animals  in  the  llanos.  Many  other 
rapacious  birds  are  peculiar  to  this  continent  ;  the  burrowing 
owl,  so  common  in  the  Pampas  and  Chili,  is  one  of  these. 
The  guachero  forms  a  genus  by  itself ;  it  is  of  the  size  of  a 
common  fowl,  with  the  form  and  beak  of  a  vulture,  and  is 
the  only  instance  known  of  a  nocturnal  bird  feeding  on  fruit. 
It  is  confined  to  a  limited  district  of  Cumana,  and  shuns  the 
light  :  incredible  numbers  have  taken  possession  of  a  dark 
cavern  in  the  valley  of  Caripa,  where  they  are  killed  in 
thousands  every  year  by  the  Indians  for  their  fat. 

The  troupials  represent  our  oriols,the  baratras  and  becardes 
our  shrikes,  while  the  tangaras  partake  of  the  form  both  of 
the  shrike  and  pie,  which  last,  w^ith  all  the  rest  of  the  crow- 
family,  have  various  representatives  in  this  country.     Swal- 
lows, or  birds  allied  to  them,  are  numerous,  and  many  that 
live  on  the  honeyed  juice  of  flowers,  like  the  humming-bird, 
so  peculiarly  characteristic  of  South  America  :   150  species 
of  humming-birds,  from  the  size  of  a  wren  to  that  of  a  hum- 
ble-bee, adorn  the  tropical  regions  of  Brazil   and   Guiana. 
This  family,   so   entirely   American,  has  a   range   from  the 
Straits  of  Magellan  to  the  38th  parallel  of  N.  lat.  and  even 
to  Cook's  Straits.     There  is  only  one  South  American  hum- 
ming-bird, w^hich  is  also  permanent  in  the  United  States,  and 
only  two  are  found  in  Central  America  :  many  of  them  are 
migratory  ;  they  come  in  multitudes  to  North  Chili  in  sum- 
mer  and   disappear  in   winter.     The   climbing-birds,    with 
large  bills,  are  mostly  confined  to  the  tropical  forests,  which 
swarm  w^ith  peculiar  races  of  parrots,  paroquets,  and  macaws, 
and  with  whole  families  of  birds  not  to  be  seen  elsewhere  ; 
as   the   vividly-coloured   toucan,  with   its  huge   beak  ;   the 
auraucari,  which  lives  on   the  fruit  of  the   auraucari   pine  ; 
some  peculiar  species  of  the  gorgeous  trogons  or  couroucous  ; 
the  tomalias,  birds  related  to  the   cuckoo   tribe  ;    and  the 
jacmars,  which  represent  the  woodpeckers. 

The  gallinaceous  family  is  totally  diflferent  from  that  in  the 
Indian  forests  ;  the  guan  or  penelope,  related  to  the  pheasant, 
and  the  tinamous,  something  of  the  grouse  kind,  supply 
their  place,  together  with  various  alectors,  w^hich  run  after 
lizards  and  snakes  on  the  plains,  or  feed  on  insects  on  the 
banks  of  rivers.     Some  of  them  have  a  horny  substance  on 


332  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  wings  for  striking  their  prey  :  the  most  peculiar  of  these 
electors  are  the  agami  or  trumpet  bird,  the  kamichi,  and  the 
caziama,  of  Brazil.  No  country  can  be  compared  with  South 
America  for  the  number  of  original  forms  of  birds,  far  beyond 
even  being  mentioned  in  a  book  not  entirely  devoted  to 
natural  history. 

The  ostrich  with  three  toes,  or  struthia  rhea,  ranges,  like 
all  its  congeners,  over  a  wide  extent  of  country.  It  is  every- 
where from  the  Silvas  to  the  Rio  Negro,  which  bounds  the 
Pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres  ;  while  the  struthia -Darwinii  has 
the  plains  of  Patagonia  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan  for  its  resi- 
dence. 

The  water-fowl  and  waders  in  this  land  of  rivers  are  be- 
yond number  ;  millions  of  flamingoes,  spatules,  cormorants, 
herons,  fishing-falcons,  and  rynchops,  follow  the  fish  that  go 
up  the  rivers  to  spawn  ;  nor  are  gulls  wanting  where  fish 
are  to  be  found  :  a  little  snow-white  heron  walks  on  the 
back  and  over  the  head  of  the  crocodile  while  it  sleeps. 
The  water-fowl  are  almost  all  peculiar  ;  the  few  that  are  ex- 
cepted are  North  American.  Eight  or  nine  genera  belong- 
ing to  the  warm  climates  of  the  old  world,  are  here  under 
new  forms,  and  the  number  of  specific  forms  of  the  same 
genus  is  greater  than  in  any  other  country.  The  tantalus 
ruber  inhabits  Cayenne  ;  the  ardea  helias  and  scalopax  are 
the  most  peculiar  of  the  herons. 

Ducks  migrate  in  immense  flocks,  alternately  between  the 
Orinoco  and  the  Amazons,  on  account  of  the  greater  supply 
of  fish  afforded  by  the  floods  of  these  rivers,  which  take 
place  at  intervals  of  six  months  from  each  other.  Between 
the  tropics  the  vicissitudes  of  drought  and  humidity  have 
much  influence  on  the  migration  of  birds,  because  the  supply 
of  their  food  depends  upon  these  changes. 

If  any  thing  more  were  required  to  show  the  partial  loca- 
tion of  birds,  the  Galapagos  Archipelago  might  be  men- 
tioned :  of  26  specimens  shot  by  Mr.  Darwin,  25  were  pecu- 
liar, though  bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  American  types ; 
some  birds  were  even  confined  to  particular  islands  ;  and 
the  gulls,  one  of  the  most  widely  dispersed  families,  are 
peculiar.  But  on  this  comparatively  recent  volcanic  group, 
only  500  miles  distant  from  the  coast  of  America,  every  thing 
is  peculiar,  birds,  plants,  reptiles,  and  fish,  and  though  under 
the  equator,  all  have  sober  covering. 


ANTARCTIC    SEA    BIRDS.  333 

The  coasts  of  Peru  and  northern  Chili  are  not  rich  in 
birds,  but  in  southern  Chili  there  are  many  humming-birds, 
parrots,  giant  storks,  flamingoes,  peculiar  ducks  and  geese  ; 
and  there  begins  that  inconceivable  quantity  of  sea-fowl  that 
swarm  on  the  seas  and  coasts  of  the  Antarctic  regions.  The 
black  rayador,  or  rhynchops  nigra,  has  been  seen  in  a  dense 
mass  seven  miles  long;  shags  fly  in  an  unbroken  line  two 
miles  long.  Pelicans',  sea-ravens,  gulls,  petrels,  and  many 
others  cover  the  low  islands  and  coasts  of  the  mainland,  and 
those  of  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

In  the  Antarctic  seas  petrels  take  place  of  our  gulls; 
seven  species  of  them  inhabit  these  high  southern  latitudes 
in  prodigious  numbers.  A  flock  of  what  was  supposed  to 
be  the  young  of  the  kind  known  as  the  Cape  pigeon,  w^as 
estimated  to  have  been  from  six  to  ten  miles  long,  and  two 
or  three  miles  broad,  which  absolutely  darkened  the  air 
during  the  two  or  three  hours  they  were  flying  over  the  dis- 
covery ships.  The  white  petrel,  a  most  elegant  bird,  never 
leaves  the  ice,  and  consequently  is  never  seen  north  of  the 
Antarctic  circle  in  summer.  Three  species  of  penguin 
inhabit  these  seas;  the  largest,  which  is  a  rare  and,  for  the 
most  part,  solitary  bird,  lives  on  the  pack-ice,  and  weighs 
from  60  to  70  pounds.  The  other  two  species  are  smaller 
and  gregarious  ;  they  crowd  the  snow-clad  islands  in  the 
high  southern  latitudes  in  myriads  :  every  ledge  of  rock 
swarms  with  them,  and  on  the  shore  of  Possession  Island, 
close  to  Victoria  Land,  it  was  difficult  to  pass  through  the 
multitudes.  They  are  fine,  bold  birds,  pecking  and  snap- 
ping with  their  sharp  bills  at  those  who  venture  among  them. 
They  can  scarcely  walk,  and  cannot  fly,  but  they  skim  along 
the  snow,  and  swim  rapidly,  even  under  water,  and  the 
noise  they  make  bafl^es  all  description.  Two  species  of  alba- 
tross breed  in  the  Antarctic  Islands  ;  a  kind  of  skua  gull, 
Avhich  robs  their  nests  ;  and  a  goose  which,  like  the  eider- 
duck,  makes  its  nest  with  the  down  from  its  breast.  Few 
land-birds  are  met  with  within  the  Antarctic  circle  :  there 
are  but  seven  or  eight  species  in  the  Auckland  Island^, 
mostly  New  Zealand  birds  ;  among  others,  the  tooa  or  tui, 
and  an  olive-coloured  creeper,  the  choristers  of  the  woods. 
One  only  was  found  in  Campbell  Island. 

Many  generic  forms  are  the  same  at  the  two  extremities  of 
the  globe,  yet  with  distinct  specific  differences.     Sea-fowls 


334  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

are  more  excursive  than  other  birds,  but  even  they  confine 
themselves  within  definite  limits,  so  that  the  coasts  may  be 
known  from  their  winged  inhabitants. 


AUSTRALIAN  BIRDS. 

The  Australian  birds  are  in  many  respects  as  singular  as 
the  quadrupeds  and  plants  of  that  country  :   a  white  falcon 
is  among  its  birds  of  prey,  a  black  swan  among  its  water- 
fowl, and  of  45  genera,  35  are  purely  Australian.     The  pas- 
seres  are  so  original,  that  many  new  genera  have  been  found. 
The  cassican,  a  handsome  bird  of  bright  colours,  approach- 
ing somewhat  to  the  crow  family,  the  choucalcyon,  the  golden 
and  black  oriole,  and  one  species  of  phelidon,  are  peculiar 
Australian.      The  menura  superba,  or  lyre-bird,  from  the  re- 
semblance its  out-spread  tail  bears  to  the  ancient  lyre,  is  the 
only  bird  of  its  genus,  and  the  only  one  which  approaches 
the  character  of  the  gallinaceous  family,  of  which  none  have 
been    discovered    in    the   Australian    continent.       Here    are 
many  specific  kinds  of  cuckoos,  as  the  coucals  and  the  scy- 
throps,  the  only  bird  of  its  genus.      Woodpeckers  there  are 
none.     The  parrots,  paroquets,  and  cockatoos,  which  live  in 
numerous  societies,  all  are  peculiar,  especially  the  black  cock- 
atoo, which  is  found  here  only  ;   it  is  not  so  gregarious,  but 
even  more  suspicious  than  the  white  cockatoos,  which  have  a 
sentinel  to  warn  them  of  danger.     Chious,  with  huge  bills 
like  the  toucan,  satin-birds,  pigeons  and  doves  of  original 
forms,  abound  ;  and   the    cereops  goose  is  no  less  peculiar 
among  the  web-footed  tribe.     The  desert  plains  of  this  great 
continent  are  allotted   to  the  emu,  a  large  struthia,  like  its 
congener  the  ostrich,  incapable  of  flight,  and  once  very  plen- 
tiful, but  now  in  progress  of  being  extirpatad  or  driven  by 
the  colonists  to  the  unexplored  regions  of  the  interior. 

The  apteryx,  a  bird  of  the  same  family,  still  lingers  in 
New  Zealand,  but  it  is  on  the  verge  of  extinction,  and  pro- 
bably owes  its  existence  to  its  nocturnal  and  burrowing 
habits.  It  is  one  of  those  anomalous  creatures  that  partakes 
of  the  character  of  several  others  ;  its  head  is  in  some  degree 
like  that  of  the  ibis,  with  a  long  slender  bill,  fitted  for  dig- 
ging into  the  ground  for  worms  and  grubs  ;  its  legs  and  feet 
resemble  those  of  the  common  fowl,  with  a  fourth  toe  or  spur 


BIRDS    OF    NEW    ZEALAND.  335 

behind,  in  which  it  differs  from  its  congeners ;  and  its 
wings,  if  wings  they  can  be  called,  are  exceedingly  small. 
In  a  specimen,  whose  body  measured  19  inches,  the  wings, 
stripped  of  the  feathers,  were  only  an  inch  and  a  half  long, 
ending  in  a  hard  horny  claw  three  inches  long.  The  compara- 
tively small  wings  are  characteristic  of  the  whole  family  : 
the  rhea  and  ostrich  have  the  largest,  which,  though  unavail- 
ing in  flight,  materially  aid  their  progress  in  running;  the 
wings  of  the  emu  and  apteryx  serve  only  as  weapons  of  de- 
fence :  the  whole  tribe  also  defend  themselves  by  kicking. 
No  animals  have  a  more  remarkable  geographical  distribu- 
tion than  this  f^^mily,  or  show  more  distinctly  the  decided 
limits  within  which  animals  have  originally  been  placed. 
These  huge  birds  can  neither  fly  nor  swim,  consequently 
they  could  not  have  passed  through  the  air  or  the  ocean  to 
distant  continents  and  islands.  There  are  five  distinct 
genera,  to  each  of  which  very  extensive  and  widely  sepa- 
rated countries  have  been  allotted  :  the  ostrich  is  spread 
over  Africa,  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  the  deserts  of 
Arabia  ;  two  species  of  the  rhea  range  over  the  plains  of  the 
Pampas  and  Patagonia,  in  South  America  ;  the  continent  of 
Australia  is  the  abode  of  the  emu  ;  the  cassowary  roves  over 
some  of  the  large  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  ;  and 
the  apteryx  dwells  in  New  Zealand.  The  dodo,  a  very  large 
bird  of  the  struthia  kind,  extirpated  by  the  Dutch  navigators, 
once  inhabited  Mauritius  and  the  adjacent  island  of  Don 
Rodriguez.  The  deinornis  giganteus,  a  bird  10  feet  high, 
has  been  recently  extinguished  in  New  Zealand,  if  there  be 
not  still  some  lingering  in  the  unexplored  part  of  that  wide 
country,  the  only  one  that  has  contained  two  genera  of  this 
family  of  birds.  Bones,  not  fossilized,  but  in  the  natural 
state,  have  been  found  of  six  species  of  this  extraordinary 
bird,  and  brought  to  England  ;  and  a  complete  skeleton  of 
the  deinornis  giganteus  has  been  arranged  by  Professor 
Owen,  the  distinguished  comparative  anatomist,  to  whom 
we  are  indebted  for  a  very  interesting  account  of  it.  A 
small  portion  of  a  large  bone  was  examined  by  him,  and  the 
result  was  one  of  those  triumphs  of  science  which  charac- 
terize genius  :  he  boldly  pronounced  it  to  be  the  bone  of  a 
bird — of  the  ostrich  kind,  and  his  decision  has  since  been 
abundantly  confirmed  by  the  subsequent  discovery  of  the 
bones  and  part  of  the  egg  of  the  bird. 


336  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  struthia  family  live  on  vegetables  ;  the  form  of  those 
that  had  their  home  in  New  Zealand  shows  that  they  had  fed 
on  the  edible  roots  of  the  fern  which  covers  that  country  ; 
and  as  no  quadruped  excepting  a  rat  is  indigenous  in  New 
Zealand, though  700  miles  long,  and  in  many  places  90  wide, 
these  birds  could  have  had  no  enemy  but  man,  the  most  for- 
midable of  all. 

The  beautiful  and  sprightly  tui,  or  parson  bird,  native  in 
New  Zealand,  is  jet  black,  with  a  white  tuft  on  its  breast, 
and  so  imitative  that  it  can  be  taught  to  repeat  whole  sen-^ 
tences.  There  are  parrots  and  paroquets,  vast  numbers  of 
pigeons,  fine  warblers,  many  small  birds,  and  a  great  variety  of 
water-fowl,  amongst  others  a  cormorant,  which,  though  web- 
footed,  perches  on  the  trees  that  overhang  the  streams  and 
sea,  watching  for  fish  ;  and  a  snow-white  frigate-bird,  that 
pounces  on  them  from  a  great  height  in  the  air.  Altogether 
there  are  at  least  84  species  of  birds  that  inhabit  these  islands. 


CHAPTER   XXX. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  MAMMALIA  THROUGHOUT  THE  EARTH. 

Carbonic  acid,  water,  and  ammonia,  contain  the  elements 
necessary  for  the  support  of  animals,  as  well  as  of  vegetables. 
They  are  supplied  to  the  graminivora  in  the  vegetable  food 
which  is  converted  into  animal  substance  by  their  vital  func- 
tions. 

Vitality  in  animals,  as  in  vegetables,  is  the  power  they 
have  of  assimilating  their  food,  a  process  independent  of  vo- 
lition, since  it  is  ca'rried  on  during  sleep,  and  is  the  cause  of 
force.  Animals  inhale  oxygen  with  the  air  they  breathe  ; 
part  of  the  oxygen  combines  with  the  carbon  contained  in 
the  food,  and  is  exhaled  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 
With  every  effort,  with  every  breath,  and  wnth  every  motion, 
voluntary  or  involuntary,  at  every  instant  of  life,  a  part  of 
the  muscular  substance  becomes  dead,  separates  from  the 
living  part,  combines  with  the  remaining  portion  of  inhaled 
oxygen,  and  is  removed.  Food,  therefore,  is  necessary  to 
compensate  for  the  waste,  to  supply  nourishment,  and  to  re- 


CHEMISTRY    OF    ANIMAL    LIFE.  337 

store  strength  to  the  nerves,  on  which  all  vital  motion  de- 
pends ;  for  by  the  nerves  volition  acts  on  living  matter. 
Food  would  not  be  sufficient  to  make  up  for  this  waste,  and 
consequent  loss  of  strength,  without  sleep;  during  which 
voluntary  motion  ceases,  and  the  undisturbed  assimilation  of 
the  food  suffices  to  restore  strength,  and  to  make  up  for  the 
involuntary  motion  of  breathing,  which  is  also  a  source  of 
waste. 

The  perpetual  combination  of  the  oxygen  of  the  atmo- 
sphere with  the  carbon  of  the  food,  and  with  the  effete  sub- 
stance of  the  body,  is  a  real  combustion,  and  is  supposed  to 
be  the  cause  of  animal  heat,  because  heat  is  constantly  given 
out  by  the  combination  of  carbon  and  oxygen;  and,  without 
a  constant  supply  of  food,  the  oxygen  would  soon  consume 
the  whole  animal,  except  the  bones. 

Graminivorous  animals  inhale  oxygen  in  breathing,  they 
also  take  it  in  by  the  pores  of  the  skin  ;  and  as  vegetable  food 
does  not  contain  so  much  carbon  as  animal  food,  they  require 
a  greater  supply  to  compensate  for  the  wasting  influence  of 
the  oxygen  ;  therefore,  cattle  are  constantly  eating.  But  the 
nutritious  parts  of  vegetables  are  identical  in  composition 
with  the  chief  constituents  of  the  blood  ;  and  from  blood 
every  part  of  the  animal  body,  and  even  a  portion  of  the 
bones,  is  formed. 

Carnivorous  animals  have  not  pores  in  the  skin,  therefore 
their  supply  of  oxygen  is  from  their  breath  only  ;  and,  as 
animal  food  contains  a  greater  quantity  of  carbon,  they  do 
not  require  to  eat  so  often  as  animals  that  feed  on  vegetables. 
The  restlessness  of  carnivorous  animals,  when  confined  in  a 
cage,  is  owing  to  the  superabundance  of  carbon  in  their  food. 
They  move  about  continually  to  quicken  respiration,  and  by 
that  means  procure  a  supply  of  oxygen  to  carry  off  the  redun- 
dant carbon. 

The  quantity  of  animal  heat  is  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  the  oxygen  inspired  in  equal  times.  The  heat  of  birds  is 
greater  than  that  of  quadrupeds,  and  in  both  it  is  higher  than 
the  temperature  of  amphibious  animals,  and  fishes,  which 
have  the  coldest  blood.  On  these  subjects  w^e  are  indebted 
to  Professor  Liebig,  who  has  thrown  so  much  light  on  the 
important  sciences  of  animal  and  vegetable  chemistry. 

The  mammalia  consist  of  nine  orders  of  animals,  which 
differ  in  appearance  and  in  their  nature  ;  but  they  agree  in 
29 


338  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  one  attribute  of  suckling  their  young.  These  orders  are 
— the  quadrumana,  animals  with  four  hands,  as  monkeys  and 
apes  ;  cheiroptera,  animals  with  winged  hands,  as  bats  ;  car- 
nivora,  that  live  on  animal  food,  as  the  lion  and  tiger;  ro- 
dentia,  or  gnawers,  as  beavers,  squirrels,  mice  ;  edentata,  or 
toothless  animals,  as  ant-eaters  and  armadilloes;  pachyder- 
mata,  or  thick-skinned  animals,  as  the  elephant,  the  horse  ; 
ruminantia,  animals  that  chew^  the  cud,  as  cows,  sheep,  deer ; 
cetacese,  as  whales,  dolphins,  and  phocse. 

The  distribution  of  animals  is  guided  by  laws  analogous 
to  those  which  regulate  the  distribution  of  plants,  insects, 
fishes,  and  birds.  Each  continent,  and  even  different  parts 
of  the  same  continent,  are  centres  of  zoological  families,  which 
have  always  existed  there,  and  nowhere  else  ;  each  group 
being  almost  always  specifically  different  from  all  others. 

Food,  security,  and  temperature  have  no  influence,  as  pri- 
mary causes,  in  the  distribution  of  animals.  The  plains  of 
America  are  not  less  fit  for  rearing  oxen  than  the  meadows 
of  Europe  ;  yet  the  common  ox  was  not  found  in  that  conti- 
nent at  the  time  of  its  discovery  ;  and,  with  regard  to  tempe- 
rature, this  animal  thrives  on  the  llanos  of  Venezuela  and  the 
pampas  of  Brazil  as  well  as  on  the  steppes  in  Europe.  The 
horse  is  another  example  :  originally  a  native  of  the  deserts 
of  Tartary,  he  now  roams  wild  in  herds  of  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands on  the  grassy  plains  of  America,  though  unknown  in 
that  continent  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  invasion.  The  sta- 
tions which  the  different  families  now  occupy  must  have  been 
allotted  to  them  as  each  part  of  the  land  rose  above  the 
ocean  ;  and  because  they  have  found  in  these  stations  all 
that  was  necessary  for  their  existence,  many  have  never  wan- 
dered from  them,  notwithstanding  their  powers  of  locomo- 
tion ;  while  others  have  migrated,  but  only  within  certain 
bounds. 

The  Arctic  regions  form  a  district  common  to  Europe, 
Asia,  and  America.  On  this  account,  the  animals  inhabiting 
the  northern  parts  of  these  continents  are  sometimes  identical, 
often  very  similar ;  in  fact,  there  is  no  genus  of  quadrupeds 
in  the  Arctic  regions  that  is  not  found  in  the  three  continents, 
though  there  are  only  27  species  common  to  all,  and  these 
are  mostly  fur-bearing  animals.  In  the  temperate  zone  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  wtiich  forms  an  uninterrupted  region,  iden- 
tity of  species  is  occasionally  met  with  ;  but  for  the  most  part 


EUROPEAN    ANIMALS.  339 

marked  by  such  varieties  in  size  and  colour  as  might  be  ex- 
pected to  arise  from  difference  of  food  and  climate.  The 
same  genera  are  sometimes  found  in  the  intertropical  parts 
of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  but  the  same  species  never  ; 
much  less  in  the  south  temperate  zones  of  these  continents, 
where  all  the  animals  are  ditferent,  whether  birds,  beasts,  in- 
sects, or  reptiles  ;  but  in  similar  climates  analogous  tribes 
replace  one  another. 

Europe  has  no  family  and  no  order  peculiarly  its  own,  and 
many  of  its  species  are  common  to  other  countries  ;  conse- 
quently the  great  zoological  districts,  where  the  subject  is 
viewed  on  a  broad  scale,  are  Asia,  Africa,  Oceanica,  Ame- 
rica, and  Australia  ;  but  in  each  of  these  there  are  smaller 
districts,  to  which  particular  genera  and  families  are  confined. 
Yet  when  the  regions  are  not  separated  by  lofty  mountain- 
chains,  acting  as  bai'riers,  the  races  are  in  most  cases  blended 
together  on  the  confines  between  the  two  districts,  so  that 
there  is  not  a  sudden  change. 


EUROPEAN  ANIMALS. 

The  character  of  the  animals  of  temperate  Europe  has  been 
more  changed  by  the  progress  of  civilization  than  that  of  any 
other  quarter  of  the  globe.  Many  of  its  original  inhabitants 
have  been  extir[)ated,  and  new  races  introduced  ;  but  it  seems 
always  to  have  had  various  animals  capable  of  being  domes- 
ticated. The  w^ild  cattle  in  the  parks  of  the  Duke  of  Hamil- 
ton and  the  Earl  of  Tankerville^  are  the  onlv  remnants  of  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  the  British  forests,  though  they  were 
spread  over  Europe,  and  perhaps  were  the  parent  stock  from 
which  the  European  cattle  of  the  present  time  have  de- 
scended; though  the  bison,  or  euroch,  a  race  nearly  extinct, 
and  found  only  in  the  forests  of  Lithuania  and  the  Caucasus, 
may  have  some  claim  to  the  pedigree.  Both  races  are  sup- 
posed to  have  come  from  Asia.  The  musraon,  which  exists 
in  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  is  said  to  be  the  origin  from  which 
our  sheep  sprung.  The  pig,  the  goat,  the  fallow-deer,  and 
red-deer,  have  been  reclaimed,  and  also  the  reindeer,  which 
cannot  strictly  be  called  European,  since  it  also  inhabits  the 
northern  regions  of  Asia  and  America.  The  cat  is  Euro- 
pean ;  and  altogether  eight  or  ten  species  of  tamed  quadru- 
peds have  sprung  from  native  animals. 


340  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

There  are  still  about  180  wild  land-animals  in  Europe : 
45  of  these  are  also  found  in  western  Asia,  and  nine  in 
northern  Africa.  The  most  remarkable  are  the  reindeer, 
elk,  red  and  tallow  deer,  the  roe-buck,  glutton,  lynx,  polecat, 
several  wild-cats,  the  common  and  black  squirrels,  the  fox, 
wild  boar,  wolf,  the  black  and  the  brown  bear,  eight  species 
of  weazels,  and  seven  of  mice.  The  otter  is  common  ;  but 
the  beaver  is  now  found  only  on  the  Rhine,  the  Rhone,  the 
Danube,  and  some  other  large  rivers  ;  rabbits  and  hares  are 
numerous  ;  the  hedgehog  is  everywhere  ;  the  porcupine  in 
southern  Europe  only  ;  the  chamois,  yzard,  and  ibex  in  the 
Alps  and  Pyrenees.  Many  species  of  these  animals  are 
widely  distributed  over  Europe,  generally  with  variations  in 
size  and  colour.  The  chamois  of  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees, 
though  the  same  in  species,  is  slightly  varied  in  appear- 
ance ;  and  the  fox  of  the  most  northern  parts  of  Europe  is 
larger  than  that  in  Italy,  with  a  richer  fur,  and  somewhat 
different  colour. 

Some  European  animals  are  much  circumscribed  in  their 
locality.  The  ichneumon  is  peculiar  to  Spain  ;  a  peculiar 
species  of  stag  and  the  m-usmon  are  confined  to  Corsica  and 
Sardinia  ;  there  are  a  weazel  and  bat  which  inhabit  Sardinia 
only  ;  and  Sicily  has  several  peculiar  species  of  bats  and 
mice.  There  is  only  one  species  of  monkey  in  Euro})e, 
which  lives  on  the  rock  of  Gibraltar,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  brought  from  Africa.  All  the  indigenous  British 
quadrupeds  now  existing,  together  with  the  hyaena,  tiger, 
bear,  and  wolf,  w^hose  bones  have  been  found  in  caverns, 
came  from  Germany  before  England  was  cut  off  from  the 
continent  by  the  British  Channel  ;  but  the  greater  number 
have  perished.  Ireland  was  separated  by  the  Irish  Channel 
before  all  the  animals  had  migrated  across  England  ;  so  that 
our  squirrel,  mole,  polecat,  dormouse,  and  many  smaller 
quadrupeds,  never  reached  the  sister  island. 


ASIATIC  ANIMALS. 

Asia  has  a  greater  number  and  a  greater  variety  of  wild 
animals  than  any  country,  except  America,  and  also  a  larger 
proportion  of  those  that  are  domesticated.  Though  civilized 
from  the  earliest  ages,  the  destruction  of  the  animal  creation 


ASIATIC    ANIMALS.  341 

has  not  been  so  great  as  in  Europe,  owing  to  the  inacessible 
height  of  the  mountains,  the  extent  of  the  plains  and  deserts, 
and,  not  least,  to  the  impenetrable  forests  and  jungles,  which 
afford  them  a  safe  retreat  :  288  mammalia  are  Asiatic,  of 
which  186  are  common  to  it  and  other  countries  ;  these, 
however,  chiefly  belong  to  the  temperate  zone. 

Asia  Minor  is  a  district  of  transition  from  the  fauna  of 
Europe  to  that  of  Asia.  There  the  chamois,  the  bou- 
quetin,  the  brown  bear,  the  wolf,  fox,  hare,  and  others,  are 
mingled  with  the  hyana,  the  angora  goat,  which  bears  a 
valuable  fleece,  the  argali  or  wild  sheep,  the  white  squirrel, 
peculiar  deer  ;  and  even  the  Bengal  royal  tiger  is  sometimes 
on  Mount  Ararat,  and  is  not  uncommon  in  Azerbijan  and 
the  mountains  in  Persia. 

Arabia  is  inhabited  by  the  hysena,  panther,  jackal,  wolf, 
and  musk-deer.  Antelopes  and  monkeys  are  found  in  Yemen 
and  Aden.  Most  of  these  are  also  indigenous  in  Persia. 
The  wild  ass,  a  handsome,  spirited  animal  of  great^  speed, 
and  so  shy  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  come  near  it,  wan- 
ders in  herds  over  the  deserts  in  both  countries.  It  is  also 
indigenous  in  the  Indian  desert,  and  especially  in  the 
Run  of  Cutch  :  "  the  wilderness  and  the  barren  lands  are 
his  dwelling." 

The  table-lands  and  mountains  which  divide  eastern  Asia 
almost  into  polar  and  tropical  zones,  produce  as  great  a  dis- 
tinction in  the  character  of  its  indigenous  fauna.  The 
severity  of  the  climate  in  Siberia  renders  the  skins  of  its 
numerous  fur-bearing  animals  more  valuable.  These  are 
reindeer,  elks,  wolves,  the  large  white  bear,  that  lives  among 
the  ice  on  the  Arctic  shores,  several  other  bears,  the  lynx, 
various  kinds  of  martens  and  cats,  the  common,  the  blue, 
and  the  black  fox,  the  ermine,  and  sable.  The  fur  of  these 
last  is  much  esteemed,  and  is  inferior  only  to  that  of  the 
sea-otter,  which  inhabits  the  shores  on  both  sides  of  the 
Northern  Pacific. 

With  the  exception  of  the  jerboa,  which  burrows  in  sandy 
deserts,  on  the  table-land  and  elsewhere,  all  the  Asiatic 
species  of  gnawers  are  confined  to  Siberia.  The  most  re- 
markable of  these  is  the  Hying  squirrel.  The  Altai  Moun- 
tains teem  with  wild  animals,  besides  many  of  those  men- 
tioned. There  are  large  stags,  sloths,  some  peculiar  weazels, 
the  argali,  and  the  musmon,  or  wild  sheep,  the  same  with 
29* 


342  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

that  in  Sardinia.  The  wild  goat  of  the  Alps  is  found  in  the 
Sayansk  part  of  the  chain  ;  the  glutton  and  musk-goat  in  the 
Baikal  ;  and  in  Da-Ouria  the  red-deer  and  a  peculiar  ante- 
lope. The  Bengal  tiger  and  the  felis-irbis,  a  species  of 
panther,  wander  from  the  Celestial  Mountains  to  the  Altai 
chain  and  southern  Siberia  ;  and  the  tiger  is  met  with  even 
on  the  banks  of  the  Obi,  and  also  in  China,  though  in  the 
northern  regions  it  differs  considerably  from  the  same  species 
in  Bengal.  The  tapir,  and  many  of  the  animals  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  are  in  the  southern  provinces  of  the 
Chinese  empire;  but  its  fauna  is  little  known.  It  is,  how- 
ever, probable  that  in  the  northern  parts  it  resembles  that  of 
the  Altai  Mountains  and  Siberia.  The  animals  of  Japan  have 
a  strong  analogy  to  those  of  Europe  :  many  are  identical,  or 
slightly  varied,  as  the  badger,  otter,  mole,  common  fox, 
marten,  and  squirrel.  On  the  other  hand,  a  large  species  of 
bear  in  the  island  of  Jezo  is  analogous  to  the  grizzly  bear  in 
the  rocky  mountains  of  North  America.  A  chamois  in  other 
parts  of  Japan  is  similar  to  the  chamois  montana  of  the  same 
mountains  ;  and  other  animals  native  in  Japan  are  the  same 
with  those  in  Sumatra  ;  so  that  its  fauna  is  connected  with 
that  of  very  distant  regions. 

A  few  animals  are  peculiar  to  the  high  cold  plains  of  the 
table-land  of  eastern  Asia :  the  dzigguetai,  a  very  fleet 
animal,  resembling  both  the  horse  and  the  ass,  is  peculiar 
to  these  Tartarian  steppes ;  two  species  of  antelopes  inhabit 
the  plains  of  Tibet,  congregating  in  immense  herds,  with 
sentinels  so  vigilant  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  approach 
them.  The  dzeran,  or  yellow  goat,  which  is  both  swift  and  shy, 
and  the  handsome  Tartar  ox,  are  native  in  these  wilds ;  also 
the  shawl-wool  goat  and  the  manul,  from  which  the  Angora 
cat,  so  much  admired  in  Persia  and  Europe,  is  descended. 

The  ruminating  animals  of  Asia  are  more  numerous  and 
more  excellent  than  those  of  any  other  part  of  the  world  ; 
64  species  are  native,  and  46  of  these  exist  there  only. 
There  are  several  species  of  wild  oxen  ;  one  in  the  Burmese 
empire,  and  on  the  mountains  of  north-eastern  India,  with 
spiral  twisted  horns.  The  buffalo  is  native  in  China,  India, 
Borneo,  and  the  Sunda  Islands  ;  it  is  a  large  animal,  for- 
midable in  a  wild  state,  but  domesticated  universally  in  the 
East.  It  was  introduced  into  Italy  in  the  sixth  century, 
and  large  herds  now  graze  in  the  low  marshy  plains  near 
the  sea. 


ASIATIC    ANIMALS.  343 

Various  kinds  of  oxen  have  been  domesticated  in  India 
time  immemorial  :  the  handsome  Indian  ox,  with  a  hump 
on  the  shoulder,  has  been  venerated  by  the  Bramins  for 
ages ;  the  beautiful  white  silky  tail  of  the  domesticated 
Tartar  ox,  used  in  the  East  to  drive  away  flies,  was  adopted 
as  the  Turkish  standard  ;  and  the  common  Indian  ox  differs 
from  all  others  in  having  great  speed.  Some  other  species 
of  cattle  have  been  tamed,  and  some  are  still  wild  in  India, 
Java,  and  other  Asiatic  Islands.  The  Cashmere  goat,  which 
bears  the  shawl  wool,  is  the  most  valuable  of  the  endless 
varieties  of  goats  and  sheep  of  Asia  ;  it  is  kept  in  large  herds 
on  the  central  table-land,  on  the  northern  declivities  of  the 
Himalaya,  and  in^  the  upper  regions  of  Bhotan,  where  the 
cold  climate  is  congenial  to  it. 

Twelve  species  of  antelope  and  20  of  deer  are  peculiar  to 
Asia,  of  which  the  musk-deer  of  the  Himalaya  is  one  ;  two 
species  of  antelopes  have  been  mentioned  as  peculiar  to  the 
table-land,  others  are  distributed  in  the  islands. 

Asia  possesses  eight  native  species  of  thick-skinned  ani- 
mals, including  the  elephant,  horse,  ass,  camel,  and  drome- 
dary, which  have  been  domesticated  from  the  time  of  the 
earliest  scriptural  records.  The  horse  and  camel  are  sup- 
posed to  have  existed  wHld  in  the  plains  of  Central  Asia, 
and  the  dromedary  in  Arabia ;  though  now"  they  are  only 
known  as  domestic  animals.  The  Arabian  and  Persian 
horses  have  acknowledged  excellence  and  beauty,  and  from 
these  our  best  European  horses  are  descended  ;  the  African 
horse,  which  was  taken  to  Spain  by  the  Moors,  is  probably 
of  the  same  race. 

The  elephant  has  long  been  a  domestic  animal  in  Asia, 
though  it  still  roams  wild  in  formidable  herds  through  the 
forests  and  jungles  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya,  in  other 
parts  of  India,  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula,  and  the  islands 
of  Sumatra  and  Ceylon,  where  it  seems  to  be  of  a  different 
species  from  those  that  are  tame  ;  the  hunting  elephant  is 
esteemed  the  most  noble.  A  rhinoceros  with  one  horn  is 
native  on  the  continent. 

There  are  60  genera  of  Asiatic  carnivorous  animals,  of 
which  the  royal  tiger  is  the  handsomest  and  the  most  for- 
midable, its  favourite  habitation  is  in  the  jungles  of  Hindos- 
tan,  though  it  wanders  nearly  to  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow 
in  the  Himalaya,  to  the  Persian  and  Armenian  mountains,  to 


344  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Siberia  and  China.  Leopards  and  panthers  are  common,  and 
there  is  a  maneless  lion  in  Guzerat :  the  chitta,  used  in  hunt- 
ing, is  the  only  one  of  the  tigers  capable  of  being  tamed. 
The  hyasna  is  found  everywhere,  excepting  the  Birman  em- 
pire, in  which  there  are  neither  wolves,  hysenas,  foxes,  nor 
jackals.  There  are  four  species  of  carnivorous  bears  in 
India  ;  that  of  Nepaul  has  valuable  fur:  the  wild  boar,  hog, 
and  dogs  of  endless  variety,  abound. 

Toothless  animals  have  only  two  representatives  in  India  ; 
which,  however,  differ  from  all  others  except  the  African,  in 
being  covered  with  imbricated  scales,  which  they  can  erect 
at  pleasure. 

The  Indian  Archipelago  and  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula 
form  a  zoological  province  of  a  very  peculiar  nature,  being 
allied  to  the  faunas  of  India,  Australia,  and  South  America, 
yet  having  animals  exclusively  its  own.  Some  groups  of 
the  islands  have  several  animals  in  common,  either  identi- 
cal, or  with  slight  variations,  that  are  altogether  wanting  in 
other  islands,  which,  in  their  turn,  have  creatures  of  their 
ow^n.  Many  species  are  common  to  the  Archipelago  and 
the  neighbouring  parts  of  the  continent,  or  even  to  China, 
Bengal,  Hindostan,  and  Ceylon.  Flying  quadrupeds  are  a 
distinguishing  feature  of  this  archipelago,  though  they  do 
not  absolutely  fly,  but,  by  an  extension  of  the  skin  of  their 
sides  to  their  legs,  they  take  long  leaps.  Nocturnal  flying 
squirrels,  of  several  species,  are  common  to  the  Malayan 
peninsula  and  the  Sunda  Islands,  especially  Java :  and  three 
species  of  flying  lemurs  inhabit  Sunda,  Malacca,  and  the 
Pelew  Islands.  Besides  these,  there  are  the  frugivorous 
bats,  which  really  fly,  and  differ  from  bats  in  other  countries 
in  living  upon  vegetable  food. 

A  hundred  and  eighty  species  of  the  ape  and  monkey 
tribe  are  entirely  Asiatic  :  monkeys  are  found  only  on  the 
coast  of  India,  Cochin-China,  and  the  Sunda  Islands  ;  the 
long-armed  apes  or  gibbons  are  in  the  Sunda  Islands  and 
the  Malayan  peninsula  ;  and  the  pongos  or  orang-outang  are 
natives  of  Sumatra  and  Borneo.  The  simayang,  a  very 
large  ape  of  Sumatra  and  Bencoolen,  goes  in  large  troops, 
following  a  leader,  and  makes  a  howding  noise  at  sunrise  and 
sunset  that  is  heard  miles  off.  Sumatra  and  Borneo  are  the 
peculiar  abode  of  the  orang-outang,  which  in  the  xVIalay  lan- 
guage means  the  ''  man  of  the  woods,"  and  of  all  its  kind,  ex- 


ANIMALS    OF    INDIAN    ARCHIPELAGO.  345 

cept  perhaps  the  chimpanzee  of  Africa  and  the  kahau  of  the 
Malayan  peninsula,  approaches  nearest  to  man.  It  has  never 
spread  over  the  islands  it  inhabits,  though  there  seems  to  be 
nothing  to  prevent  it,  but  it  finds  all  that  is  necessary  within 
a  limited  district.  The  orang-outang  and  the  long-armed 
apes  have  extraordinary  muscular  strength,  and  swing  from 
tree  to  tree  by  their  arms. 

The  Malays  have  given  the  name  of  orang  or  man  to  the 
whole  tribe,  on  account  of  their  intelligence  as  well  as  their 
form. 

A  two-horned  rhinoceros  is  peculiar  to  Java,  of  a  diffe- 
rent species  from  the  African,  also  the  felis  macrocelis,  and 
a  very  large  bear  ;  there  are  only  two  species  of  squirrels  in 
Java,  which  is  remarkable,  as  the  Sunda  Islands  are  rich  in 
them.  The  royal  tiger  of  India  and  the  elephant  are  found 
only  in  Sumatra,  and  the  babi-roussa  or  hog-deer  lives  in 
Borneo  ;  but  these  two  islands  have  many  quadrupeds  in 
common,  as  a  leopard,  the  one-horned  rhinoceros,  the  black 
antelope,  some  graceful  miniature  creatures  of  the  deer  kind, 
the  tapir  bicolor,  also  found  in  Malacca  and  India,  besides  a 
wild  boar,  an  inhabitant  of  all  the  marshy  forests  from  Bor- 
neo to  New  Guinea.  In  the  larger  islands  deer  abound, 
from  the  size  of  a  rabbit  to  that  of  the  elk. 

The  anoa,  a  ruminating  animal  about  the  size  of  a  sheep, 
and  in  appearance  something  between  the  buffalo  and  ante- 
lope, shy  and  fierce,  goes  in  herds  in  the  mountains  of  Ce- 
lebes, where  many  forms  of  animals  strangers  to  the  Sunda 
Islands  begin  to  appear,  as  some  sorts  of  phalangers,  or 
pouched  quadrupeds.  These  new  forms  become  more  nume- 
rous in  the  Moluccas,  which  are  inhabited  by  flying  phalan- 
gers and  other  pouched  animals,  with  scaly  tails.  In  New 
Guinea  there  are  kangaroos,  the  spotted  phalanger,  the 
pelandoe,  the  New  Guinea  hog,  and  the  Papua  dog,  said  to 
be  the  origin  of  all  the  native  dogs  in  Australia  and  Oce- 
anica,  wild  or  tame. 

The  fauna  of  the  Philippine  Islands  is  analogous  to  that 
in  the  Sunda  Islands.  They  have  several  quadrupeds  in 
common  with  India  and  Ceylon,  but  there  are  others  which 
probably  are  not  found  in  these  localities. 


346  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


AFRICAN  QUADRUPEDS. 

The  opposite  extremes  of  aridity  and  moisture  in  the  Afri- 
can continent  have  had  nrpeal  influence  in  the  nature  and 
distribution  of  its  animals  ;  and  since  by  far  the  greater  part 
consists  of  plains  utterly  barren  or  covered  by  temporary  ver- 
dure, and  watered  by  inconstant  streams  that  flow  only  a  few 
months  in  the  year,  fleet  animals,  fitted  to  live  on  arid  plains, 
are  far  more  abundant  than  those  that  require  rich  vegeta- 
tion and  much  water.  The  latter  are  chiefly  confined  to  the 
intertropical  coasts,  and  especially  to  the  large  jungles  and 
deep  forests  at  the  northern  declivity  of  the  table-land,  where 
several  genera  and  many  species  exist  that  are  not  found 
elsewhere.  Africa  has  a  fauna  in  many  respects  insulated 
from  that  of  every  other  part  of  the  globe  ;  for  although 
about  100  of  its  quadrupeds  are  common  to  other  countries, 
there  are  250  species  its  own.  Several  of  these  animals, 
especially  the  larger  kinds,  are  distributed  over  the  whole 
table-land  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  the  highlands  of 
Abyssinia  and  Senegambia  without  the  smallest  variety,  and 
many  are  slightly  modified  in  colour  and  size.  Ruminating 
animals  are  very  numerous,  though  few  have  been  domesti- 
cated :  of  these  the  ox  of  Abyssinia  and  Bornou  is  remarka- 
ble from  the  extraordinary  size  of  its  horns,  which  are  some- 
times two  feet  in  circumference  at  the  root  ;  and  the  Galla 
ox  of  Abyssinia  has  horns  four  feet  long.  There  are  many 
African  species  of  buffaloes  :  that  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
is  a  large,  fierce  animal,  w^andering  in  herds  in  every  part  of 
the  country,  even  to  Abyssinia  :  the  flesh  of  the  whole  race 
is  tainted  with  the  odour  of  musk.  The  African  sheep  and 
goats,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties,  differ  from  those  of 
other  countries  ;  the  wool  of  all  is  coarse,  except  that  of  the 
Merino  sheep,  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Spain  by 
the  Moors  from  Morocco. 

No  country  has  produced  a  ruminating  animal  similar,  or 
even  analogous,  to  the  girafTe,  or  camelopard,  which  ranges 
widely  over  South  Africa  from  the  northern  banks  of  the 
Gareep,  or  Orange  River,  to  the  Great  Desert.  It  is  a  gen- 
tle, timid  animal,  which  has  been  seen  in  troops  of  100. 
The  earliest  record  we  have  of  it  is,  that  it  graced  the  tri- 
umph of  a  Roman  emperor. 


AFRICAN    QUADRUPEDS.  347 

Africa  may  truly  be  said  to  be  the  land  of  the  antelope, 
which  is  found  in  every  part  of  it,  though  chiefly  on  the 
table-land.  Different  species  have  their  peculiar  localities, 
while  others  are  widely  dispersed,  sometimes  with  and  some- 
times without  any  sensible  variety  of  size  or  colour.  The 
greater  number  are  inhabitants  of  the  plains,  while  a  few 
affect  the  forests.  Sixty  species  have  been  described,  of 
which  at  least  26  are  found  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
in  the  adjacent  countries.  They  are  of  every  size,  from  the 
pigmy  antelope  not  larger  than  a  hare,  to  the  eland,  which 
is  larger  than  a  calf.  Timidity  is  the  universal  character  of 
the  race.  Many  are  gregarious  ;  and  the  number  in  a  herd 
is  far  too  great  even  to  guess  at.  Like  all  animals  that  feed 
in  groups,  they  have  sentinels  ;  and  they  are  the  easy  prey 
of  so  many  carnivorous  animals,  that  their  safety  requires  the 
precaution.  At  the  head  of  their  enemies  is  the  lion,  who 
lurks  among  the  tall  reeds  at  the  fountain,  to  seize  them  when 
they  come  to  drink.  They  are  graceful  in  their  motions, 
especially  the  spring-buck,  which  goes  in  a  compact  troop  ; 
and  in  their  march  there  is  constantly  some  one  which  gathers 
its  slender  limbs  together  and  bounds  into  the  air. 
'  Africa  has  only  two  species  of  deer,  both  belonging  to  the 
Atlas:  one  is  the  common  fallow-deer  of  Europe. 

The  38  species  of  rodentia,  or  gnawing  quadrupeds,  of 
this  continent,  live  on  the  plains;  and  the  greater  part  of  them 
are  leaping  animals,  as  the  gerboa  capensis.  Squirrels  are 
rare,  and  all  terrestrial. 

Tii^ere  are  five  species  of  the  horse  kind  in  South  Africa; 
of  these  the  gaily-striped  zebra,  and  the  more  sober-coloured 
quagga,  of  several  species,  wander  in  troops  over  the  plains, 
often  in  company  with  ostriches.  An  alliance  between  crea- 
tures differing  in  nature  and  habits  is  not  easily,, accounted 
for.  The  two-horned  rhinoceros  of  Africa  is  different  from 
that  of  Asia:  there  are  certainly  three,  and  probably  five, 
species  of  these  huge  animals  peculiar  to  the  table-land.  Dr. 
Smith  saw  150  in  one  day  near  the  24th  parallel  of  south 
latitude.  The  hippopotamus  is  exclusively  African:  multi- 
tudes inhabit  the  lakes  and  rivers  in  the  intertropical  and 
southern  parts  of  the  continent,  and  never  change  their  abode. 
Elephants,  differing  in  species  from  those  in  Asia,  are  so  nu- 
merous, that  200  have  been  seen  in  a  herd  near  Lake  Chad. 
They  are  not  now  domesticated  in  Africa,  and  are  hunted  by 


348  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  natives  for  their  tusks.  A  wild  hog  and  the  hyrax  are 
among  the  thick-skinned  quadrupeds  of  this  country.  The 
monkey  tribe  is  found  in  all  the  hot  parts  of  Africa  :  peculiar 
genera  are  allotted  to  particular  districts.  The  family  of  gue- 
nons  is  found  in  no  part  of  the  world  but  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  the  coasts  of  Loango  and  Guinea;  the  mandrills  are 
peculiar  to  Guinea  ;  and  of  the  cynocephalus,  or  blue-headed 
ape,  one  species  inhabits  Guinea,  others  the  southern  part  of 
the  table-land,  and  one  is  met  with  everywhere  from  Senaar 
to  Cafraria.  A  very  remarkable  long-eared  kind  is  found  in 
Abyssinia  ;  the  margot  is  in  North  Africa,  and  the  chimpan- 
zee inhabits  the  forests  of  South  Africa  from  Cape  Negro  to 
the  Gambia.  Living  in  society  like  all  apes  and  monkeys, 
which  are  eminently  sociable,  it  is  easily  tamed,  and  very  in- 
telligent. Baron  Humboldt  observes  that  all  apes  resembling 
man  have  an  expression  of  madness;  that  their  gaiety  dimi- 
nishes as  their  intelligence  increases. 

Africa  possesses  the  cat  tribe  in  great  variety  and  beauty; 
lions,  leopards,  and  panthers  are  numerous  throughout  the 
continent;  servals  and  viverrine  cats  are  in  the  torrid  dis- 
tricts ;  and  the  lion  of  the  Atlas  is  said  to  be  the  most  formi- 
dable of  all.  In  no  country  are  foxes  so  abundant.  Various 
species  inhabit  Nubia,  Abyssinia,  and  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  The  corsac  is  peculiar  to  the  Cape.  The  long-eared 
fox,  the  farnel  of  Kordofan,  and  some  others,  are  found  in 
Africa  only.  There  are  also  various  species  of  dogs,  the 
hyeena,  and  the  jackal. 

Two  species  of  toothless  animals  are  African — the  •long- 
tailed  manis,  and  the  aard-vark,  or  earth-hog  ;  both  are 
covered  with  scales:  they  burrow  in  the  ground,  and  feed 
on  ants.  Great  flocks  of  a  large  migratory  vampire-bat  fre-' 
quent  the  slave-coast.  Altogether  there  are  26  species  of 
African  bats. 

Multitudes  of  antelopes  of  various  species,  lions,  leopards, 
panthers,  hy8enas,  jackals,  and  some  other  carnivora,  live  in 
the  oases  of  the  great  northern  deserts  ;  gerboas  and  endless 
species  of  leaping  gnawers,  rats  and  mice,  burrow  in  the 
ground.  The  dryness  of  the  climate  and  soil  keeps  the  coats 
of  the  animals  clean  and  glossy  ;  and  it  has  been  observed 
that  tawny  and  grey  tints  are  the  prevailing  colours  in  the 
fauna  of  the  North  African  deserts,  not  only  in  the  birds  and 
beasts,  but  in  reptiles  and  insects.     In  consequence  of  the 


AMERICAN    QUADRUPEDS.  349 

continuous  desert  soil  from  North  Africa  through  Arabia  to 
Persia  and  India,  many  analogous  species  of  animals  exist  in 
those  countries  ;  in  some  instances  they  are  the  same,  or  va- 
rieties of  the  same  species,  as  antelopes,  leopards,  panthers, 
jackals,  and  hyeenas. 

The  fauna  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  great  island  of  Mada- 
gascar is  analogous  to  that  of  India  ;  on  the  western  side  it 
resembles  that  of  Africa,  though,  as  far  as  it  is  known,  it 
seems  to  be  a  distinct  centre  of  animal  life.  It  has  no  rumi- 
nating animals  ;  and  the  monkey  tribe  is  represented  by  the 
lemures,  which  are  characteristic  of  this  fauna.  A  frugivo- 
rous  bat,  the  size  of  a  common  fowl,  forms  an  article  of  food. 


AMERICAN  QUADRUPEDS. 

No  species  of  animal  has  yet  been  extirpated  in  America, 
which  is  the  richest  zoological  province,  possessing  537  spe- 
cies of  mammalia,  of  which  480  are  its  own,  yet  no  country 
has  contributed  so  little  to  the  stock  of  domestic  animals. 
With  the  exception  of  the  llama  (alpaca  guanaco)  and  vi- 
cugna, the  turkey,  and  perhaps  some  sheep  and  dogs,  Ame- 
rica has  furnished  no  animal  or  bird  serviceable  to  man, 
while  it  has  received  from  Europe  all  its  domestic  animals 
and  its  civilized  inhabitants. 

Arctic  America  possesses  almost  all  the  valuable  fur-bear- 
ing animals  that  are  in  Siberia  ;  and  they  were  very  plenti- 
ful till  the  unsparing  destruction  of  them  has  driven  those 
yet  remaining  to  the  high  latitudes,  where  the  hunters  that 
follow  them  are  exposed  to  great  hardships.  Nearly  6,000,- 
000  of  skins  were  brought  to  England  in  one  year.  Of  the 
large  animals,  the  shaggy  bison,  the  musk-ox,  and  the  wapiti 
are  peculiar.  The  musk-ox  travels  north  to  Parry's  Islands  ; 
yet  it  never  has  been  seen  in  Greenland  or  on  the  north-west 
coast  of  America.  The  range  of  the  elk  ends  where  the  aspen 
and  willow  cease  to  grow.  The  rein-deer,  living  on  lichens 
and  mosses,  wanders  to  the  shores  of  the  Polar  Ocean  :  its 
southern  limit  in  Europe  is  the  Baltic,  and  in  America  the 
latitude  of  Quebec.  The  white  bear,  the  largest  and  most 
formidable  of  his  kind,  inhabits  the  ice  itself.  The  shaggy 
bison  goes  south  to  the  Arkansas,  and  roams  in  herds  of  thou- 
30 


350  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

sands  over  the  prairies  of  the  Mississippi,  and  on  both  sides 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.     A  marten  called  the  prairie-dog 

is  universal. 

There  are  at  least  eight  species  of  American  dogs,  several 
of  which  are  natives  of  the  far  north.  The  logapus,  or  isatis, 
native  in  Spitzbergen  and  Greenland,  is  found  in  all  the 
Arctic  regions  of  America  and  Asia,  and  in  some  of  the  Ku- 
rile  Islands.  Dogs  are  employed  to  draw  sledges  in  New- 
foundland and  Canada  ;  and  the  Esquimaux  travel  drawn 
by  dogs  as  well  as  by  rein-deer.  The  dogs  are  strong  and 
docile.  The  Esquimaux  dogs  were  mute,  till  they  learned 
to  bark  from  dogs  in  our  discovery  ships. 

There  are  13  species  of  the  ruminating  genus  in  North 
America,  including  the  bison,  the  musk-ox  of  the  Arctic  re- 
gions, the  big-horned    sheep,  and  the    goat  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains;  but  of  the  thick-skinned  tribe,  so  useful  to  man, 
there  are  only  some  tapirs,  and  a  creature  allied  to  the  hog. 
The  horse,  now  roaming  wild  in  innumerable  herds  over  the 
plains  of  South  America,  was  unknown  there  till  the  Spanish 
conquest.      Some   of   the  fur-bearing  animals  of  the  north 
never  pass  65°  N.  lat.,  and  the  rest  live  in   the  pine-forests 
of  Canada.      The  quadrupeds  of  the  temperate  zone  are  also 
distributed  in  distinct  groups:  those  of  the  state  of  New 
York,  consisting  of  about  40  species,  are  different  from  those 
of  the  Arctic  regions,  and  also  from  those  of  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia  ;  while  in  Texas  another  assemblage  of  species 
prevails.     Numerous  species  of  gnawers  are  scattered  over 
the  northern  continent,  especially  squirrels  ;  the  grey  squirrel 
is   in  thousands  ;   but   the  racoon,  the  coatimondi,  and  the 
kinkajou  are  all  natives  of  the  southern  States.     The  opos- 
sum, a  pouched  animal  of  an  order  peculiarly  Australian,  is 
found  in  Virginia,  and  everywhere  between  the  great  Cana- 
dian lakes  and  Paraguay  ;  and  two  other  anim.als  of  that  order 
live  in  Mexico.     There  is  a  porcupine  in  the  United  States 
and  Canadian  forests  which  climbs  trees.     The  bats  are  dif- 
ferent from  those  in  Europe,  and,  excepting  two,  are  very 
local.    The  grizzly  bear  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  the  largest 
and  most  ferocious  of  American  bears.     The  prong-buck  an- 
telope is  everywhere  in  the  western  parts  of  the  continent, 
from  bS""  N.  lat.  to  Mexico  and  California  ;  it  is  swifter  than 
the  fleetest  horse,  and  migrates  to  the  south  in  winter.     In 
California   there  are  ounces,  polecats,  the   fallow-deer,  the 


ANIMALS    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA.  351 

berenda  (an  animal  peculiar  to  that  country),  and  a  deer  of 
remarkable  size  and  speed. 

The  high  land  of  Mexico  forms  a  very  decided  line  of  di- 
vision between  the  fauna  of  North  and  that  of  South  Ame- 
rica ;  yet  some  North  American  animals  are  seen  beyond  it, 
particularly  two  of  the  bears,  and  one  of  the  otters,  which 
inhabits  the  continent  from  the  icy  ocean  to  beyond  Brazil. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  puma,  jaguar,  opossum,  kinkajou, 
and  peccari  have  crossed  the  barrier  from  South  America  to 
California  and  the  United  States. 

In  the  varied  and  extensive  regions  of  South  America 
there  are  several  centres  of  a  peculiar  fauna,  according  as 
the  country  is  mountainous  or  level,  covered  with  forest  or 
grass,  fertile  or  desert,  but  the  mammalia  are  inferior  in  or- 
ganization and  size  to  those  of  the  old  world.  The  largest, 
most  powerful,  and  perfect  animals  of  this  class  are  confined 
to  the  old  continent.  The  South  American  quadrupeds  are 
on  a  smaller  scale,  more  feeble  and  more  gentle  ;  many  of 
them,  as  the  toothless  group  and  the  sloths,  are  of  anomalous 
and  less  perfect  structure  than  the  rest  of  the  animal  crea- 
tion, but  the  fauna  of  South  America  is  so  local  and  so  pecu- 
liar, that  the  species  of  five  of  the  terrestrial  orders,  which 
are  indigenous  there,  are  found  nowhere  else. 

The  monkey  tribe  are  in  myriads  in  the  forests  of  tropical 
America  and  Brazil,  but  they  never  go  north  of  the  Isthmus 
of  Darien,  nor  farther  south  than  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  They 
differ  widely  from  those  in  the  old  world,  bearing  less  re- 
semblance to  the  human  race,  but  they  are  more  gentle  and 
lively,  and,  notwithstanding  their  agility,  are  often  a  prey 
to  the  vulture  and  puma.  Some  have  no  thumb,  others 
have  a  versable  thumb  on  hands  and  feet,  and  the  thousands 
of  sapajous  have  propensile  tails,  by  which  they  suspend 
themselves  and  swing  from  bough  to  bough.  These  inhabi- 
tants of  the  woods  are  very  noisy,  especially  the  argualis,  a 
large  ape,  whose  howling  is  heard  a  mile  off. 

The  forests  are  also  inhabited  by  a  family  of  the  marsupial 
tribe,  or  animals  with  pouches,  in  which  they  carry  their 
young  ;  they  are  analogous  to  those  which  form  the  distin- 
guishing feature  of  the  Australian  fauna,  but  of  distinct 
genera  and  species.  All  the  opossums  and  the  yassacks  of 
this  family  have  thumbs  on  their  hind  feet,  opposite  to  the 
toes,  so  that  they  can  grasp  ;  they  are  moreover  distinguished 


352  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

from  the  Australian  family  by  a  long  prehensile  tail,  and  by 
greater  agility.  The  numerous  tribe  of  sapajou  monkeys, 
the  ant-eaters,  the  kinkajou,  and  a  species  of  porcupine, 
have  also  grasping  tails,  a  property  of  many  South  American 
animals. 

Five  genera  and  20  species  of  the  toothless  quadrupeds 
are  characteristic  of  this  continent,  and  exclusively  confined 
to  South  America  ;  they  are  the  sloths,  the  ai,  the  armadil- 
loes,  chlamyphores,  and  ant-eaters.  The  animals  of  these 
five  genera  have  very  diflf'erent  habits  :  the  sloths,  as  their 
name  implies,  are  the  most  inactive  of  animals  ;  while  the 
armadillo,  in  its  coat  of  mail,  is  in  perpetual  motion,  and  in 
speed  can  outrun  a  man.  Several  species  of  these  animals 
are  nocturnal,  and  burrow  in  the  earth  in  the  Pampas,  Chili, 
and  other  places.  The  chlamyphores  are  also  burrowing 
animals,  peculiar  to  the  province  of  Cuyo  in  La  Plata,  and 
they  have  the  property  of  sitting  upright.  The  ant-eater, 
larger  than  a  Newfoundland  dog,  with  shorter  legs,  defends 
itself  against  the  jaguar  with  its  powerful  claw^s  ;  it  inhabits 
the  swampy  savannahs  and  damp  forests  from  Colombia  to 
Paraguay,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  foot  of  the  Andes ; 
its  flesh,  like  that  of  some  other  American  animals,  has  a 
flavour  of  musk.  The  little  ant-eater  has  a  prehensile  tail, 
and  lives  on  trees  in  the  tropical  forests,  feeding  on  the 
larvae  of  bees,  wasps,  honey,  and  ants  ;  another  of  similar 
habits  lives  in  Brazil  and  Guiana.  The  cat  tribe  in  South 
America  is  beautiful  and  powerful :  the  puma,  the  lion  of 
America,  is  found  both  in  the  mountains  and  the  plains,  in 
great  numbers  ;  so  different  are  its  habits  in  different  places, 
that  in  Chili  it  is  timid  and  flies  from  a  dog;  in  Peru,  it  is 
bold,  though  it  rarely  attacks  a  man.  The  ounce,  which 
inhabits  the  lower  forests,  kills  Indians  even  near  their  huts. 
The  jaguar,  a  large  tiger,  very  abundant,  is  so  ravenous  that 
it  has  sprung  upon  Indians  in  a  canoe  ;  it  is  one  of  the  few 
South  American  animals  that  cross  the  Isthmus  of  Darien, 
being  found  in  California,  on  the  territory  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  has  been  seen  in  Canada. 

The  vampire  is  a  very  large  bat,  much  dreaded  by  the 
natives,  because  it  enters  their  huts  at  night,  and  though  it 
seldom  attacks  human  beings,  it  wounds  calves  and  small 
animals,  which  sometimes  die  from  the  loss  of  blood.  The 
other  three  South  American  bats  are  harmless. 


RUMINANTS    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA.  353 

The  only  ruminating  animals  in  South  America  are  the 
alpacas,  vicugnas,  llamas,  and  guanacos ;  the  three  first  are 
peculiar  to  the  Andes,  the  fourth  is  also  in  the  Pampas,  and 
in  all  the  southern  temperate  zone  to  Cape  Horn  ;  it  is 
characteristic  of  the  plains  of  Patagonia,  where  it  is  in  large 
herds,  and  is  easily  tamed  ;  to  these  may  be  added  four  spe- 
cies of  deer.  The  gnawers  of  South  America  are  peculiar 
and  varied;  more  than  40  species  of  mice  are  native.  The 
agouti  represents  our  hares  on  these  deserts,  and  the  bizcacha 
is  a  burrowing  animal,  frequent  in  the  pampas  of  Buenos 
Ayres.  There  is  only  one  species  of  squirrel  in  the  vast 
forests  of  South  America.  The  guinea-pig,  peccari,  and 
cavies  are  South  American  ;  so  is  the  beautiful  chinchilla, 
the  fur  of  which  is  so  valuable.  The  only  native  dogs  are 
a  half-reclaimed  breed,  which  the  Indians  have,  and  a  dumb 
dog  in  Brazil. 

It  is  very  remarkable  that  in  a  country  which  has  the  most 
luxuriant  vegetation  there  should  not  be  one  species  of  hol- 
low-horned ruminants,  as  the  ox,  sheep,  goat,  or  antelope  ; 
and  it  is  still  more  extraordinary  that  the  existing  animals  of 
South  America,  which  are  so  nearly  allied  to  the  extinct  in- 
habitants of  the  same  soil,  should  be  so  inferior  in  size  not 
only  to  them,  but  even  to  the  living  quadrupeds  of  South 
Africa,  which  is  comparatively  a  desert.  The  quantity  of 
vegetation  in  Britain  at  any  one  time  exceeds  the  quantity 
on  any  equal  area  in  the  interior  of  Africa,  ten-fold,  yet  Mr. 
Darwin  has  computed  that  the  weight  of  10  of  the  largest 
South  African  quadrupeds  is  24  times  greater  than  that  of 
the  same  number  of  quadrupeds  of  South  America;  for  in 
South  America  there  is  no  animal  the  size  of  a  cow^,  so  that 
there  is  no  relation  between  the  bulk  of  the  species  and  the 
vegetation  of  the  countries  they  inhabit. 

The  largest  animals  indigenous  in  the  West  Indian  Islands 
are  the  agouti,  the  racoon,  the  houtias,  a  native  of  the 
forests  of  Cuba  ;  the  didelphus  carnivora  and  the  kinkajou 
are  common  also  to  the  continent  ;  the  kinkajou  is  a  solitary 
instance  of  a  carnivorous  animal  with  a  prehensile  tail. 
30* 


354  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


AUSTRALIAN  QUADRUPEDS. 

Australia  is  not  farther  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
world  by  geographical  position  than  by  its  productions.  Its 
animals  are  creatures  by  themselves,  of  an  entirely  unusual 
type  ;  few  in  species,  and  still  fewer  individually,  if  the 
vast  extent  of  country  be  taken  into  consideration  ;  and 
there  has  not  been  one  large  animal  discovered.  There  are 
only  53  species  of  land  quadrupeds  in  New  Holland,  and 
there  is  not  a  single  example  of  the  ruminating  or  thick- 
skinned  animals,  so  useful  to  man,  among  them  ;  there  are 
no  native  horses,  oxen,  or  sheep,  yet  all  these  thrive  and 
multiply  on  the  grassy  steppes  of  the  country,  which  seem  to 
be  so  well  suited  to  them.  There  are  none  of  the  monkey 
tribe,  indeed  they  could  not  exist  in  a  country  where  there 
is  no  fruit. 

Of  the  52  species  of  indigenous  quadrupeds,  40  are  found 
nowhere  else,  and  43  are  marsupial  or  pouched  animals, 
distinguished  from  all  others  by  their  young  being  nourished 
in  the  pouch  till  they  are  mature.  Though  all  the  members 
of  this  numerous  family  agree  in  this  circumstance,  they  are 
dissimilar  in  appearance,  internal  structure,  in  their  teeth 
and  feet,  consequently  in  their  habits  ;  two  genera  live  on 
vegetable  food,  one  set  are  gnawers  and  another  toothless. 
The  kangaroo  and  the  kangaroo-rat  walk  on  their  hind  legs, 
and  go  by  bounds,  aided  by  their  strong  tail  ;  the  rat  holds 
its  food  in  its  hands  like  the  squirrel  ;  the  opossum  walks 
on  all  fours  ;  the  phalangers  live  on  trees,  and  swing  by  their 
bushy  tail,  some  burrow  in  the  sand  ;  the  flying  opossum  or 
phalanger,  peculiarly  an  Australian  animal,  lives  on  the 
leaves  of  the  gum-tree  ;  by  expanding  the  skin  of  its  sides  it 
supports  itself  in  the  air  in  its  leaps  from  bough  to  bough. 
Several  of  the  genera  come  out  at  night  only,  a  characteristic 
of  many  Australian  animals. 

The  pouched  tribe  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  large  dog  to  a 
mouse  ;  the  kangaroos,  which  are  the  largest,  are  easily 
domesticated,  and  are  used  for  food  by  the  natives.  Some 
go  in  large  herds  in  the  mountains,  others  live  in  the  plains  ; 
however,  they  have  become  scarce  near  the  British  colonies, 
and,  with  all  other  native  animals,  are  likely  to  be  extirpated. 
In  Van  Diemen's  Land,  they  are  less  persecuted  ;  several 


LIVING    AND    EXTINCT    GENERA.  355 

species  exist  there.  A  wild  dog  in  the  woods,  whose 
habits  are  ferocious,  is  the  largest  carnivorous  animal  in 
Australia. 

The  gnawing  animals  are  aquatic  and  very  peculiar,  but 
the  toothless  animals  of  New  Holland  are  quite  extraordi- 
nary ;  of  these  there  are  two  genera,  the  platypus  ornitho- 
rynchus,  or  duck-billed  mole,  and  the  echidna:  they  are  the 
link  that  connects  the  edentata  with  the  pouched  tribe.  The 
duck-billed  mole  is  about  14  inches  long,  and  covered  with 
thick  brown  fur  ;  its  head  is  similar  to  that  of  a  quadruped, 
ending  in  a  bill  like  that  of  a  duck  ;  it  has  short  furry  legs 
with  half-webbed  feet,  and  the  hind  feet  are  armed  with 
sharp  claws.  The  burrows  it  inhabits  on  the  banks  of  rivers 
have  two  entrances,  one  above  and  the  other  below  the  level 
of  the  water,  which  it  seldom  leaves,  feeding  on  insects  and 
seeds  in  the  mud. 

The  echidna  is  similar  in  structure  to  the  platypus,  but 
entirely  different  in  external  appearance,  being  covered  with 
quills  like  the  porcupine  ;  it  is  also  a  burrowing  animal, 
sleeps  during  winter,  and  lives  on  ants  in  summer. 

A  singular  analogy  exists  betw^een  Australia  and  South 
America  in  this  respect,  that  the  living  animals  of  the  two 
countries  are  stamped  with  the  type  of  their  ancient  geologi- 
cal inhabitants,  while  in  England  and  elsewhere  the  differ- 
ence between  the  existing  and  extinct  generation  of  beings 
is  most  decided.  Australia  and  South  America  seem  still  to 
retain  some  of  those  conditions  that  w^ere  peculiar  to  the 
most  ancient  eras.  Thus  each  tribe  of  the  innumerable  fami- 
lies that  inhabit  the  earth,  the  air,  and  the  waters,  has  a 
limited  sphere.  How  wonderful  the  quantity  of  life  that  now 
is,  and  the  myriads  of  beings  that  have  appeared  and  van- 
ished. Dust  has  returned  to  dust  through  a  long  succession 
of  ages,  and  has  been  continually  remoulded  into  new  forms 
of  existence — not  an  atom  has  been  annihilated  :  the  fate  of 
the  vital  spark  that  has  animated  it,  with  a  vividness  some- 
times approaching  to  reason,  is  one  of  the  deep  mysteries  of 
Providence. 


356  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

THE     DISTRIBUTION,     CONDITION,    AND    FUTURE     PROSPECTS    OF 

THE    HUMAN    RACE. 

More  than  860,000,000  of  human  beings  are  scattered  over 
the  face  of  the  earth,  of  all  nations  and  kindreds  and  tongues; 
and  in  all  stages  of  civilization,  from  a  high  state  of  moral 
and  intellectual  culture,  to  savages  but  little  above  the  ani- 
mals that  contend  with  them  for  the  dominion  of  the  deserts 
and  forests  through  which  they  roam.  This  vast  multitude 
is  divided  into  nations  and  tribes,  differing  in  external  ap- 
pearance, character,  language,  and  religion.  The  manner 
in  which  they  are  distributed,  the  affinities  of  structure  and 
language  by  which  they  are  connected,  and  the  effect  that 
climate,  food,  and  customs  may  have  had  in  modifying  their 
external  form,  or  their  moral  and  mental  powers,  are  sub- 
jects of  much  more  difficulty  than  the  geographical  disper- 
sion of  the  lower  classes,  inasmuch  as  the  immortal  spirit  is 
the  chief  agent  in  all  that  concerns  the  human  race.  The 
progress  of  the  universal  mind  in  past  ages,  its  present  state, 
and  the  future  prospects  of  humanity,  rouse  the  deep  sympa- 
thies of  our  nature  for  the  high  but  mysterious  destiny  of 
the  myriads  of  beings  yet  to  come,  who,  like  ourselves, 
will  be  subject  for  a  few  brief  years  to  the  joys  and  sor- 
rows of  this  transient  state,  and  fellow-heirs  of  eternal  life 
hereafter. 

Notwithstanding  the  extreme  diversity,  personal  and  men- 
tal, in  mankind,  anatomists  have  found  that  there  are  no 
specific  differences — that  the  hideous  Esquimaux,  the  refined 
and  intellectual  Circassian,  the  thick-lipped  swarthy  Negro, 
and  the  fair  blue-eyed  Scandinavian,  are  mere  varieties  of 
the  same  species.  The  human  race  forms  five  great  classes 
or  families,  marked  by  strong  distinctive  characters.  Many 
nations  are  included  in  each,  distinguished  from  one  another 
by  difierent  languages,  manners,  and  mental  qualities,  yet 


CLASSES    OF    THE    HUMAN    RACE.  357 

bearing  such  a  resemblance  in  structure  and  physiognomy  as 
to  justify  a  classification  apparently  anomalous. 

The  Circassian  group  of  nations,  which  includes  the  hand- 
somest and  most  intellectual  portion  of  mankind,  inhabit  all 
Europe,  except   Lapland,  Finland,  and  Hungary  ;  they  oc- 
cupy North  Africa  as  far  as  the  20th   parallel  of  north  lati- 
tude,   Arabia,   Asia    Minor,    Persia,    the    Himalaya    to   the 
Brahmapootra,  all  India   between   these  mountains  and  the 
ocean,  and  the  United  States  of  North  America.     These  na- 
tions are   remarkable   for  a   beautifully -shaped  small  head, 
regular    features,   fine    hair,   and    symmetrical  form.      The 
Greeks,  Georgians,  and  Circassians   are   models   of  perfec- 
tion in  form,  especially  the  last,  assumed  as  the  type  of  this 
class  of  mankind  ;  of  which  it  is  evident  that  colour  is  not  a 
characteristic,  since  they  are  of  all  shades,  from  the  fair  and 
florid  to  the  clear  dark  brown  and  almost  black.     This  family 
of  nations  has  always  been,  and  still   is,  the   most  civilized 
portion  of  the  human  race.     The  inhabitants  of  Hindostan, 
the  Egyptians,  Arabians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  were  in  an- 
cient times  what  the  European  nations  are  now.    The  cause  of 
this  remarkable  development  of  mental   power  is  no  doubt 
natural  disposition,  for  the   difference  in  the  capabilities  of 
nations   seems   to   be  as  great  as  that   of  individuals.     The 
origin  of  spontaneous  civilization  and  superiority  may  gene- 
rally be  traced  to  the  talent  of  some  master-spirit  gaining  an 
ascendency  over  his  countrymen.      Natural  causes  have  also 
combined  with  mental — mildness  of  climate,  fertility  of  soil ; 
rivers  and  inland    seas,  by   aflfording  facility  of  intercourse, 
favoured  enterprise  and  commerce  ;  and    the   double-river 
systems  in  Asia  brought  distant   nations  together,  and    soft- 
ened those  hostile  antipathies  which  separate  people,  multi- 
ply languages,  and  reduce  all  to  barbarism.     The  genius  of 
this  family  of  nations  has  led  them  to  profit  by  these  riatural 
advantages,  whereas  the  American  Indians   are  at  this  day 
wandering  as  barbarous  hordes  in  one  of  the  finest  countries 
in  the  world.    An  original  similarity  or  even  identity  of  many 
of  the  spoken  languages,  may  be  adverted  to  as  facilitating 
communication  and  mental  improvement  among  the  Circas- 
sian class  in  very  ancient  times. 

The  Mongol-Tartar  family  forms  the  second  group  of  na- 
tions. They  occupy  all  Asia  north  of  the  Persian  table- 
land and  of  the  Himalaya,  the  whole  of  eastern  Asia  from  the 


358 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


Brahmapootra  to  Behring's  Straits,  together  with  the  Arctic 
regions  of  North  America  south  to  Labrador.  This  family 
inchides  the  Tourkoinans,  Mongol  and  Tartar  tribes,  the 
Chinese,  Indo-Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Esquimaux  ;  and  the 
Hungarians  in  the  very  heart  of  Europe.  These  nations  are 
distinguished  by  broad  skulls  and  high  cheek-bones,  with 
small  black  eyes  obliquely  set,  long  black  hair,  and  a  yellow 
or  sallow  olive  complexion  ;  some  are  good  looking,  and 
many  are  well  made,  A  portion  of  this  family  is  capable  of 
high  culture,  especially  the  Chinese,  the  most  civilized  na- 
tion of  eastern  Asia,  although  they  never  have  attained  the 
excellence  of  the  Caucasian  group,  probably  from  their  ex- 
clusive social  system,  which  has  separated  them  from  the 
rest  of  mankind  and  kept  them  stationary  for  ages  ;  the  pecu- 
liarity and  difficulty  of  their  language  have  also  tended  to 
insulate  them.  The  Kalmuks,  who  lead  a  pastoral,  wander- 
ing life,  on  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia,  and  the  Esquimaux, 
have  wider  domains  than  any  other  of  this  set  of  nations. 
The  Kalmuks  are  rather  a  handsome  people,  and  like  all  who 
lead  a  savage  life,  have  acute  senses  of  seeinfj  and  hearino-. 
The  inhabitants  of  Finland  and  Lapland  are  nearly  allied  to 
the  Esquimaux,  who  occupy  all  the  high  latitudes  of  both 
continents  —  a  diminutive  race,  equally  ugly  in  face  and 
form. 

Malayan  nations  occupy  the  Indian  Archipelago,  New 
Zealand,  Chatham  Island,  the  Society  group,  and  several 
other  of  the  Polynesian  islands,  together  with  the  Philippines 
and  Formosa.  They  are  very  dark,  with  lank  coarse  black 
hair,  flat  face,  and  obliquely  set  eyes.  Endowed  with  great 
activity  and  ingenuity,  they  are  mild  and  gentle,  and  far 
advanced  in  the  arts  of  social  life,  in  some  places  ;  in  others, 
ferocious  and  revengeful,  daring  and  predatory:  and,  from 
their  maritime  position  and  skilf,  they  are  a  migratory  race. 
Several  branches  of  this  class  of  nations  had  a  very  early 
indigenous  civilization,  with  an  original  literature  in  peculiar 
characters  of  their  own. 

The  Ethiopian  nations  are  widely  dispersed  ;  they  occupy 
all  Africa  south  of  the  Great  Desert,  half  of  Madagascar,  the 
continent  of  Australia,  Mindanao,  Gilolo,  the  high  lands  of 
Borneo,  Sumbawa,  Timor,  and  New  Ireland.  The  distin- 
guishing characters  of  this  group  are  a  black  complexion, 
black  woolly  or   frizzled   hair,  thick  lips,  projecting  jaws, 


AMERICANS. 


359 


high  cheek-bones,  and  large  prominent  eyes.  A  great  va- 
riety, however,  exists  in  this  jetty  race.  Some  are  hand- 
some both  in  face  and  figure,  especially  in  Ethiopia  ;  and 
even  in  Western  Africa,  where  the  negro  tribes  live,  there 
are  groups  in  which  the  distinctive  characters  are  less  exag- 
gerated. This  great  family  has  not  yet  attained  a  high 
place  among  the  nations,  though  by  no  means  incapable  of 
cultivation  ;  and  part  of  Ethiopia  appears  to  have  made  con- 
siderable advances  in  civilization  in  very  ancient  times. 
But  the  formidable  deserts,  so  extensive  in  some  parts  of  the 
continent,  and  the  unwholesome  climate  in  others,  have  cut 
off  the  intercourse  with  civilized  nations  ;  and,  unfortunately, 
the  infamous  traffic  in  slaves,  to  the  disgrace  of  Christianity, 
has  made  the  nations  of  tropical  Africa  more  barbarous  than 
they  were  before  ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  Foulahs  and 
other  tribes,  who  were  converts  to  Mohammedanism  400 
years  ago,  have  now  large  commercial  towns,  cultivated 
grounds,  and  schools.  The  Australians  and  Papuans,  who 
inhabit  the  Eastern  islands  mentioned,  are  the  most  degraded 
of  this  dark  race,  and  indeed  of  all  mankind. 

The  American  race,  who  occupy  the  whole  of  that  conti- 
nent from  62°  N.  lat.  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  are  almost 
all  of  a  reddish-brown  or  copper  colour,  with  long  black 
hair,  deep-set  black  eyes,  aquiline  nose,  and  often  of  hand- 
some slender  forms.  In  North  America  they  live  by  hunting, 
are  averse  to  agriculture,  slow  m  acquiring  knowledge,  but 
extremely  acute,  brave,  and  fond  of  war ;  and  though  re- 
vengeful, are  capable  of  generosity  and  gratitude.  In  South 
America  many  are  half  civilized,  but  a  greater  number  are 
still  in  a  state  of  utter  barbarism.  In  a  family  so  widely 
scattered,  great  diversity  of  character  prevails;  yet  throughout 
the  whole  there  is  a  similarity  of  manners  and  habits,  which 
has  resisted  all  the  effects  of  time  and  climate. 

Each  of  these  five  groups  of  nations,  spread  over  vast 
regions,  is  accounted  one  family  ;  and  if  they  are  so  by 
physical  structure,  they  are  still  more  so  by  language,  which 
expresses  the  universal  mind  of  a  people,  modified  by  ex- 
ternal circumstances,  of  which  none  have  a  greater  influence 
than  the  geographical  features  of  the  country  they  inhabit, 
and  that  influence  is  deepest  in  the  early  stages  of  society. 
The  remnants  of  ancient  poetry  in  the  south  of  Scotland 
partake  of  the  gentle  and  pastoral  character  of  the  country ; 


360  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

while  Celtic  verse,  and  even  the  spoken  language  of  the 
Highlander,  are  full  of  the  poetical  images  of  war  and  stern 
mountain  scenery.  As  civilization  advances,  and  man  be- 
comes more  intellectual,  the  language  keeps  pace  in  the  pro- 
gress. New  words  and  new  expressions  are  added,  as  new 
ideas  occur  and  new  things  are  invented,  till  at  last  language 
itself  becomes  a  study,  is  refined,  and  perfected  by  the  intro- 
duction of  general  terms.  The  art  of  printing  perpetuates  a 
tongue,  and  great  authors  immortalize  it ;  yet  language  is 
ever  changing  to  a  certain  degree,  though  it  never  loses 
traces  of  its  origin.  Chaucer  and  Spenser  have  become  ob- 
scure ;  Shakspeare  requires  a  glossary  for  the  modern 
reader  ;  and  in  the  few  years  that  the  United  States  of  Ame- 
rica have  existed  as  an  independent  nation  the  speech  has 
deviated  from  the  mother  tongue.  When  a  nation  degene- 
rates, it  is  split  by  jealousy  and  war  into  tribes,  each  of 
which  in  process  of  time  acquires  a  peculiar  idiom,  and  thus 
the  number  of  dialects  is  increased,  though  they  still  retain 
a  similarity  ;  whereas  when  masses  of  mankind  are  united 
into  great  political  bodies,  their  languages  by  degrees  assimi- 
late to  one  common  tongue,  which  retains  traces  of  all  to  the 
latest  ages.  The  form  of  the  dialects  now  spoken  by  some 
savage  tribes,  as  the  North  American  Indians,  bears  the 
marks  of  a  once  higher  state  of  civilization. 

More  than  2000  languages  are  spoken,  but  few  are  inde- 
pendent ;  some  are  connected  by  words  having  the  same 
meaning,  some  by  grammatical  structure,  others  by  both  ; 
indeed  the  permanency  of  language  is  so  great,  that  neither 
ages  of  conquest  nor  mixing  with  other  nations  have  obli- 
terated the  native  idiom  of  a  people.  The  French,  Spanish, 
and  German  retain  traces  of  the  common  language  spoken 
before  the  Roman  conquest,  and  the  Celtic  tongue  still  exists 
in  the  British  Islands. 

By  a  comparison  of  their  dialects,  nations  far  apart,  and 
differing  in  every  other  respect,  are  discovered  to  have 
sprung  from  a  common,  though  remote  origin.  Thus  all  the 
numerous  languages  spoken  by  the  American  Indians,  or  red 
men,  are  similar  in  grammatical  structure  :  an  intimate  ana- 
logy exists  in  the  languages  of  the  Esquimaux  nations,  who 
inhabit  the  Arctic  regions  of  both  continents.  Dialects  of 
one  tongue  are  spoken  throughout  North  Africa,  as  far  south 
as  the  oasis  of  Siwah  on  the  east  and  the  Canary  Islands  on 


PERMANENCY    OF    PECULIARITIES.  361 

the  west.  Another  group  of  cognate  idioms  is  common  to 
the  inhabitants  of  equatorial  Africa  ;  while  all  the  southern 
part  of  the  continent  is  inhabited  by  people  whose  languages 
are  connected.  The  monosyllabic  speech  of  the  Chinese 
and  Indo-Chinese  sho\\'s  that  they  are  the  same  people,  and 
all  the  insular  nations  of  the  Pacific  derived  their  dialects 
from  some  tribes  on  the  continent  of  India  and  the  Indian 
Archipelago. 

The  Persian,  Arabic,  Greek,  Latin,  German,  and  Celtic 
tongues  are  connected  by  grammatical  structure,  and  words 
expressive  of  the  same  objects  and  feelings  with  the  Sans- 
crit, or  sacred  language  of  India  ;  consequently  the  nations 
inhabitintj  the  British  Islands  and  these  extensive  districts 
of  the  Continent  must  have  had  the  same  origin. 

The  two  methods  of  classing  mankind  that  have  been 
mentioned  do  not  perfectly  agree,  nor  does  either  of  them 
include  the  whole,  but  an  approximation  is  all  that  can  be 
attained  in  so  complicated  a  subject. 

It  is  no  difficult  matter  to  see  how  changes  may  occur  in 
speech,  but  no  circumstance  in  the  natural  world  is  more 
inexplicable  than  the  diversity  of  form  and  colour  in  the 
human  race.  It  had  already  begun  in  the  Antediluvian 
world,  for  ''  there  were  giants  in  the  land  in  those  days." 
No  direct  mention  is  made  of  colour  at  that  time,  unless  the 
mark  set  upon  Cain,  *'  lest  any  one  finding  him  should  kill 
him,"  may  allude  to  it.  Perhaps,  also,  it  may  be  inferred 
that  black  people  dwelt  in  Ethiopia,  or  the  land  of  Cash, 
which  means  black  in  the  Hebrew  tongue.  At  all  events, 
the  difference  now  existing  must  have  arisen  after  the  flood, 
consequently  all  must  have  originated  with  Noah,  whose 
wife,  or  the  wives  of  his  sons,  may  have  been  of  diflferent 
colours  for  aught  we  know. 

Many  instances  have  occurred  in  modern  times  of  albinos 
and  red-haired  individuals  having  been  born  of  black  parents, 
and  these  have  transmitted  their  peculiarities  to  their  de- 
scendants for  several  generations  ;  but  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  pure-blooded  white  people  have  ever  had  perfectly 
black  offspring.  The  varieties  are  much  more  likely  to  have 
arisen  from  the  eflfects  of  climate,  food,  customs,  and  civili- 
zation upon  migratory  groups  of  mankind,  and  of  such  a 
few  instances  have  occurred  in  historical  times,  limited, 
however,  to  small  numbers  and  particular  spots ;  but  the 
31 


362  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

great  mass  of  nations  had  received  their  distinctive  characters 
at  a  very  early  period.  The  permanency  of  type  is  one  of 
the  most  striking  circumstances,  and  shows  the  immense 
length  of  time  necessary  to  produce  a  change  in  national 
structure  and  colour.  A  nation  of  Ethiopians  existed  3450 
years  ago,  which  emigrated  from  a  remote  country  and  set- 
tled near  Egypt,  and  there  must  have  been  black  people 
before  the  age  of  Solomon,  otherwise  he  would  not  have 
alluded  to  colour  even  poetically.  Besides,  the  national 
appearance  of  the  Ethiopians,  Persians,  and  Jews  has  not 
varied  for  more  than  3000  years,  as  appears  from  the  ancient 
Egyptian  paintings  in  the  tomb  of  Rhameses  the  Great,  dis- 
covered at  Thebes  by  Belzoni,  in  which  the  countenance  of 
the  modern  Ethiopian  and  Persian  can  be  readily  recog- 
nised, and  the  Jewish  features  and  colour  are  identical  with 
those  of  the  Israelites  daily  met  with  in  London.  As  there 
is  no  instance  of  a  new  variety  of  mankind  having  been 
established  as  a  nation  since  the  Christian  era,  there  must 
either  have  been  a  greater  energy  in  the  causes  of  change 
before  that  era,  or,  brief  as  man's  span  on  earth  has  been,  a 
wrono  estimate  of  time  antecedent  to  the  Christian  period 
must  have  made  it  shorter. 

Darkness  of  complexion  has  been  attributed  to  the  sun's 
power  from  the  age  of  Solomon  to  this  day.  "  Look  not  upon 
me,  because  I  am  black,  because  the  sun  hath  looked  upon 
me  :"  and  there  cannot  be  a  doubt,  that  to  a  certain  degree 
the  opinion  is  well  founded.  The  invisible  rays  in  the  solar 
beams,  which  change  vegetable  colour,  and  have  been  em- 
ployed with  such  remarkable  effect  in  the  Daguerreotype, 
act  upon  every  substance  on  which  they  fall,  producing 
mysterious  and  wonderful  changes  in  their  molecular  state, 
man  not  excepted. 

Other  causes  must  have  been  combined  to  occasion  all 
the  varieties  we  now  see,  otherwise  every  nation  between 
the  tropics  would  be  of  the  same  hue;  whereas  the  sooty 
negro  inhabits  equatorial  Africa,  the  red  man  equinoctial 
America,  and  both  are  mixed  with  fairer  tribes.  In  Asia, 
the  Rohillas,  a  fair  race,  inhabit  the  plains  south  of  the 
Ganges  ;  the  Bengalee  and  the  mountaineers  of  Nepaul  are 
dark,  and  the  Mahrattas  are  yellow.  Even  supposing  that 
diversity  of  colour  is  owing  to  the  sun's  rays  only,  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  attribute  the  thick  lips,  the  woolly  hair, 


FOOD    AND    CLIMATE.  363 

and  the  entire  difference  of  form,  extending  even  to  the 
very  bones  and  skull,  to  any  thing  but  a  variety  of  concur- 
ring circumstances,  not  omitting  the  invisible  influence  of 
electricity,  which  pervades  every  part  of  the  earth  and  air, 
and  possibly  terrestrial  magnetism. 

The  flexibility  of  man's  constitution  enables  him  to  live 
in  every  climate  from  the  equator  to  the  ever-frozen   coasts 
of  Nova  Zembla   and    Spitzbergen  and  that  chiefly  by  his 
capability  of  bearing  the  extremest  changes  of  temperature 
and  diet,  which   are   probably  the  principal  causes  of  the 
variety  in   his  form.     It  has  already  been    mentioned    that 
oxygen  is  inhaled  with  the  atmospheric  air,  and  also  taken 
in  by  the  pores   in   the   skin  ;    part  of  it  combines  chemi- 
cally with  the  carbon  of  the  food,  and  is  expired  in  the  form 
of  carbonic-acid  gas  and  water  ;   that  chemical  action  is  the 
cause  of  vital   force   and   heat  in    man   and   animals.     The 
quantity  of  food  must  be  in  exact  proportion  to  the  quantity 
of  oxygen  inhaled,  otherwise  disease   and  loss  of  strength 
would   follow.     Since   cold    air   is  incessantly  carrying  off* 
warmth  from  the  skin,  more  exercise   is  requisite  in  winter 
than  in  summer,  in   cold   climates  than   in  warm  ;    conse- 
quently more  carbon  is  necessary  in  the  former  than  in  the 
latter,  in  order  to  maintain  the  chemical  action  that  generates 
heat,  and  to  ward  off'  the  destructive  effects  of  the  oxygen, 
which    incessantly    strives  to    consume    the   body.      Animal 
food,   wine   and   spirits  contain    many    times    more    carbon 
than   fruit  and   vegetables,  therefore  animal  food   is  much 
more  necessary  in  a  cold  than  in  a  hot  climate.     The  Esqui- 
maux, who  lives  by  the  chase,  and  eats   10   or  12  pounds 
weight  of  meat  and  fat  in  24  hours,  finds  it  not  more  than 
enough  to  keep  up  his  strength  and  animal  heat ;  while  the 
indolent  inhabitant  of  Bengal  is  sufficiently  supplied  with  both 
by  his  rice  diet.     Clothing  and  warmth  make  the  necessity  for 
exercise  and  food  much  less,  by  diminishing  the  waste  of  ani- 
mal heat.     Hunger  and  cold  united  soon  consume  the  body, 
because  it  loses  its  power  of  resisting  the  action  of  the  oxygen, 
which  consumes  part  of  our  substance  when  food  is  wanting. 
Hence  nations  inhabiting  warm  climates  have  no  great  merit 
in  being   abstemious,  nor   are    those   committing   an    excess 
who  live  more  freely  in  the  colder  countries.      The  arrange- 
ment of  Divine  Wisdom  is  to  be  admired  as  much  in  this  as 
in  all  other  things,  for  if  man  had  only  been  capable  of  living 


364  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

on  vegetable  food,  he  never  could  have  had  a  permanent 
residence  beyond  the  latitude  where  corn  ripens.  The  Es- 
quimaux and  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  very  high  latitudes  of 
both  continents  live  entirely  on  fish  and  animal  food. 

A  nation  or  tribe  driven  by  war,  or  any  other  cause,  from 
a  warm  to  a  cold  country,  or  the  contrary,  w^ould  be  forced 
to  change  their  food  both  as  to  quantity  and  quality,  which 
in  the  lapse  of  ages  might  produce  an  alteration  in  the  ex- 
ternal form  and  internal  structure.  The  probability  is  still 
greater,  if  the  entire  change  that  a  few  years  produces  in  the 
.matter  of  the  human  frame  be  considered.  At  every  instant 
during  life,  with  every  motion,  voluntary  and  involuntary, 
with  every  thought  and  exercise  of  the  brain,  a  portion  of 
our  substance  becomes  dead,  separates  from  the  living  part, 
combines  wnth  some  of  the  inhaled  oxygen,  and  is  removed. 
By  this  process  it  is  supposed  that  the  whole  body  is  renewed 
every  seven  years:  individuality,  therefore,  depends  on  the 
spirit,  which  retains  its  identity  during  all  the  changes  of  its 
earthly  house,  and  sometimes  even  acts  independently  of  it. 
When  sleep  is  restoring  exhausted  nature,  the  spirit  is  often 
awake  and  active,  crowding  the  events  of  years  into  a  few 
seconds,  and,  by  its  unconsciousness  of  time,  anticipates  eter- 
nity. Every  change  of  food,  climate,  and  mental  excite- 
ment must  have  their  influence  on  the  reproduction  of  the 
mortal  frame;  and  thus  a  thousand  causes  may  co-operate  to 
alter  whole  races  of  mankind  placed  under  new  circumstances, 
time  being  granted.  '^ 

The  difference  between  the  effects  of  manual  labour  and 
the  efforts  of  the  brain  appears  in  the  intellectual  countenance 
of  the  educated  man,  compared  with  that  of  the  peasant, 
though  he  also  is  occasionally  stamped  with  nature's  own  no- 
bility. The  most  savage  people  are  also  the  ugliest.  Their 
countenance  is  deformed  by  violent  unsubdued  passions, 
anxiety,  and  suffering.  Deep  sensibility  gives  a  beautiful 
and  varied  expression,  but  every  strong  emotion  is  unfavour- 
able to  perfect  regularity  of  feature  ;  and  of  that  the  ancient 
Greeks  were  well  aware  when  they  gave  that  calmness  of 
expression  and  repose  to  their  unrivalled  statues.  The  re- 
fining effects  of  high  cuhure,  and,  above  all,  the  Christian 
religion,  by  subduing  the  evil  passions,  and  encouraging  the 
good,  are  more  than  any  thing  calculated  to  improve  even 
the  external  appearance.     The  countenance,  though  perhaps 


INTELLECTUAL    AND    PHYSICAL    FORM.  365 

of  less  regular  form,  becomes  expressive  of  the  amiable  and 
benevolent  feelings  of  the  heart,  the  most  captivating  and 
lasting  of  all  beauty. 

Thus  an  infinite  assemblage  of  causes  maybe  assigned  as 
having  produced  the  endless  varieties  in  the  human  race  ; 
but  the  fact  remains  an  inscrutable  mystery  not  to  be  ex- 
plained, more  than  why  twin-brothers  are  not  exactly  alike. 
But  amidst  all  the  physical  vicissitudes  man  has  undergone, 
the  species  remains  permanent;  and  let  those  who  think  that 
the  difference  in  the  species  of  animals  and  vegetables  arises 
from  diversity  of  conditions,  consider  that  no  circumstances 
whatever  can  degrade  the  form  of  man  to  that  of  the  monkey, 
or  elevate  the  monkey  to  the  form  of  man. 

Animals  and  vegetables,  being  the  sources  of  man's  sus- 
tenance, have  had  the  chief  influence  on  his  destiny  and  lo- 
cation, and  have  induced  him  to  settle  in  those  parts  of  the 
world  where  he  could  procure  them  in  greatest  abundance. 
Wherever  the  chase  or  the  spontaneous  productions  of  the 
earth  supply  him  with  food,  he   is  completely  savage,  and 
only  a  degree  further  advanced  where  he  plants  the   palm 
and  banana  ;  where  grain  is  the  principal  food,  industry  and 
intelligence  are  most  perfectly  developed,  as  in  the  tempe- 
rate zone.     On  that  account,  the  centres  of  civilization  have 
generally  been  determined,  not  by  hot,  but  genial  climate, 
fertile  soil,  by  the  vicinity  of  the  sea-coast  or   great  rivers, 
affording  the  means  of  fishing  and  transport,  which  last  has 
been  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  superiority  of  Europe  and 
southern  Asia.    The  mineral  treasures  of  the  earth  have  been 
the  means  of  assembling  great  masses  of  men  in  Siberia  and 
the  table-land  of  the  Andes,  and   have   given   rise  to  many 
great  cities,  both  in  England  and  North  America.     Nations 
inhabiting  elevated  table-lands  and  high   ungenial  latitudes 
have  been  driven  there  bv  war,  or  obliged  to  wander  from 
countries  where  the  population  exceeded  the  means  of  livmg 
— a  cause  to  which  both  language  and  tradition  bear  testi- 
mony.   The  belief  in  a  future  state,  so  universal,  and  shown 
by  respect  for  the  dead,  has  no  doubt  been  transmitted  from 
nation  to  nation.     The  American  Indians,  driven  from  their 
hunting-grounds,  still  make  pilgrimages  to  the  tombs  of  their 
fathers;  and  these  tribes  alone,  of  all  civilized   mankind, 
worship  the  Great  Spirit  as  the  invisible  God  and  Father  of 
all — a   degree  of  abstract  refinement  which  could    hardly 
31* 


366  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

have  sprung  up  spontaneously  among  a  rude  people,  and 
must  have  been  transmitted  from  races  who  held  the  Jewish 
faith.  ^    ' 

The  influence  of  external  circumstances  on  man  is  not 
greater  than  his  influence  on  the  material  world.     It  is  true, 
he  cannot  create   power;   but  he  dexterously  avails  himself 
of  the  powers  of  nature  to  subdue  nature.     Air,  fire,  water, 
steam,  gravitation,  his  own   muscular  strength   and  that  of 
animals,  have  been  the   instruments   by  which  he  has  con- 
verted the  desert  into  a  garden,  drained  marshes,  turned  the 
course  of  rivers,  cut  canals,  made  roads,  cleared  away  forests 
in   one  country,  and  planted  them  in    another.     By  these 
works  he  has  altered  the  climate,  changed  the  course  of  local 
winds,  increased    or  diminished   the  quantity  of  rain,  and 
softened  the  rigour  of  the  seasons.    In  the  time  of  Strabo,  the 
cold  in  France  was  so  intense,  that  it  was  thought  impossi- 
ble to  ripen    grapes  north  of  the  Cevennes  ;  and  the  Rhine 
and  Danube  were  every  winter  covered  with  ice  thick  enough 
to  bear  any  weight.    Man's  influence  on  vegetation  has  been 
immense,  but  the  most  important  changes  were  produced  in 
the  antediluvian  ages  of  the  w^orld.    Cain  was  a  tiller  of  the 
ground.     The  olive,  the  vine,  and   the  fig-tree  have  been 
cultivated  time  immemorial:   wheat,  rice,  and   barley  have 
been  so  long  in   an   artificial   state   that   their  origin  is   un- 
known:  even  maize,  which  is  a  Mexican  plant,  was  in  use 
among  the  American  tribes  before  the  Spanish  conquest;  and 
tobacco  was  already  used  by  them  to  allay  the  pangs  of  hun- 
ger, to  which   those  who  depend    upon   the  chase  for  food 
must  be  exposed.     Most  of  the  ordinary  culinary  vegetables 
have  been  known  for  ages  ;  and   it  is  singular  that  in  these 
days,  when  our  gardens  are  adorned  with  innumerable  native 
plants  in  a  cultivated  state,  no  new  grain,  vegetable,  or  fruit 
has  been  reclaimed:    the  old  have  been  produced  in  infinite 
variety,  and  many  brought  from  foreign  countries;  yet  there 
must  exist  many  plants  capable  of  cultivation,  as  unpromis- 
ing in  their  wild  state  as  the  turnip  or  carrot. 

Some  families  of  plants  are  more  susceptible  of  improve- 
ment than  others,  and,  like  man  himself,  can  bear  almost  any 
climate.  One  kind  of  wheat  grows  to  62°  N.  lat. ;  rye  and 
barley  succeed  still  farther  north  ;  and  few  countries  are  ab- 
solutely without  grass.  The  cruciform  tribe  abounds  in  use- 
ful plants;  indeed,  that  family,  together  with  the  solanum, 


REFINEMENTS    IN    CIVILIZATION.  367 

the  papilionaceous,  and  umbelliferous  tribes,  furnish  most  of 
our  vegetables.  Many  plants,  like  animals,  are  of  but  one 
colour  in  their  wild  state,  and  their  blossoms  are  single. 
Art  has  introduced  that  variety  we  now  see  in  the  same  spe- 
cies ;  and  by  changing  the  anthers  of  the  wild  fiower  into 
petals,  has  produced  double  blossoms:  by  art,  too,  many 
plants  of  warm  countries  have  been  naturalized  in  colder. 
Few  useful  plants  have  beautiful  blossoms;  but  if  utility  were 
the  only  object,  of  what  pleasure  should  we  be  deprived  ? 
Refinement  is  not  altogether  wanting  in  the  inmates  of  a  cot- 
tage covered  wMth  roses  and  honeysuckle  ;  and  the  little  gar- 
den, cultivated  amidst  a  life  of  toil,  tells  of  a  peaceful 
home. 

Among  the  objects  which  tend  to  the  improvement  of  our 
race,  the  flower-garden  and  the  park,  adorned  with  na- 
tive and  foreign  trees,  have  no  small  share  :  they  are  the 
greatest  ornaments  of  the  British  Islands  ;  and  the  love  of  a 
country  life,  which  is  so  strong  a  passion,  is  chiefly  owing  to 
the  law  of  primogeniture,  by  which  the  head  of  a  family  is 
secured  in  the  possession  and  transmission  of  his  undivided 
estate,  and  therefore  each  generation  takes  a  pride  and  plea- 
sure in  adorning  the  home  of  their  forefathers. 

Animals  yield  more  readily  to  man's  influence  than  vege- 
tables ;  but  certain  classes  have  a  greater  flexibility  of  dis- 
position and  structure  than  others.  Those  only  are  capable 
of  being  perfectly  reclaimed  that  have  a  natural  tendency  for 
it,  without  which  man's  endeavours  would  be  unavailing. 
This  predisposition  is  greatest  in  animals  that  are  gregarious 
and  follow  a  leader,  which  elephants,  dogs,  horses,  and  cat- 
tle do  in  their  wild  state  ;  but  even  among  these  some  spe- 
cies are  refractory,  as  the  buffalo,  which  can  only  be  regarded 
as  half  reclaimed.  The  canine  tribe,  on  the  contrary,  are 
capable  of  the  greatest  attachment;  not  the  dog  only,  man's 
faithful  companion,  but  even  the  wolf,  and  especially  the 
hyaena,  generally  believed  to  be  so  ferocious.  After  an 
absence  of  many  months,  a  hysena  recognised  the  voice  of  a 
friend  of  the  author  before  he  came  in  sight,  and  on  seeing 
him  it  showed  the  greatest  joy,  lay  down  like  a  dog  and 
licked  his  hands.  He  had  been  kind  to  it  on  the  voyage 
from  India,  and  no  animal  forgets  kindness,  which  is  the 
surest  way  of  reclaiming  them.  There  cannot  be  a  greater 
mistake  than  the  harsh  and  cruel  means  by  which  dogs  and 


368  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

horses  are  too  commonly  trained  ;  but  it  is  long  before  man 
learns  that  his  power  is  mental,  and  that  it  is  his  intellect 
alone  that  has  given  him  dominion  over  the  earth  and  its 
inhabitants,  many  of  which  far  surpass  him  in  physical 
strength.  The  useful  animals  were  reclaimed  by  the  early 
inhabitants  of  Asia,  and  little  has  been  left  for  modern  na- 
tions but  the  improvement  of  the  species,  and  in  that  they 
have  been  very  successful.  The  variety  of  horses,  dogs, 
oxen,  and  sheep  is  beyond  number.  The  form,  colour,  and 
even  the  disposition,  may  be  materially  altered,  and  the 
habits  engrafted  are  transmitted  to  the  offspring,  as  instinc- 
tive properties  independent  of  education.  Domestic  fowls 
go  in  flocks  in  their  native  w^oods,  when  wild.  There  are, 
however,  instances  of  solitary  birds  being  tamed  to  an  extra- 
ordinary degree,  as  the  raven,  one  of  the  most  sagacious. 

Man's  necessities  and  pleasureshave  been  the  cause  of  great 
changes  in  the  animal  creation,  but  his  destructive  propensity 
still  greater.  Animals  are  intended  for  our  use,  and  field- 
sports  are  advantageous  by  encouraging  a  daring  and  active 
spirit  in  young  men  ;  but  the  utter  destruction  of  some  races, 
in  order  to  protect  those  destined  for  his  amusement,  is  too 
selfish.  Animals  soon  acquire  an  instinctive  dread  of  man, 
which  becomes  hereditary.  In  newly  discovered  unin- 
habited countries,  birds  and  beasts  are  so  tame  as  to  allow 
themselves  to  be  taken.  Whales  scarcely  got  out  of  the 
way  of  the  ships  that  first  navigated  the  Arctic  Ocean,  but 
they  now  have  a  dread  of  the  common  enemy.  Many  land 
animals  and  birds  are  vanishing  before  the  advance  of  civili- 
zation. Sea-fowl  and  birds  of  passage  are  not  likely  to  be 
extinguished.  The  inaccessible  cliffs  of  the  Himalaya  and 
the  Andes  will  afford  a  refuge  to  the  eagle  and  the  condor  ; 
but  the  time  will  come  when  the  mighty  forests  of  the  Ama- 
zons and  Orinoco  will  disappear  with  the  myriads  of  their 
joyous  inhabitants.  The  lion,  the  tiger,  and  the  elephant 
will  be  known  only  by  ancient  records.  Man,  the  lord  of 
the  creation,  will  extirpate  the  noble  creatures  of  the  earth, 
but  he  himself  will  ever  be  the  slave  of  the  canker-worm 
and  the  fly.  Cultivation  may  lessen  the  scourge  of  the 
insect  tribe,  but  God's  great  army  will  ever  from  time  to 
time  appear  suddenly,  no  one  knows  from  whence  ;  and  the 
locust  will  come  from  the  desert,  and  destroy  the  fairest 
prospects  of  the  harvest. 


PROGRESS    OF    CIVILIZATION.  369 

Though  the  unreclaimed  portion  of  the  animal  creation  is 
falling  before  the  progress  of  improvement,  yet  man  has  been 
both  the  voluntary  and  the  involuntary  cause  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  new  animals  and  plants  into  countries  in  which  they 
were  not  native.  The  Spanish  conquerors  little  thought  that  the 
descendants  of  the  horses  and  cattle  they  allowed  to  run  wild 
would  resume  the  original  character  of  their  species,  and  roam 
in  hundreds  of  thousands  over  the  savannahs  of  South  Ame- 
rica. Wherever  man  is,  civilized  or  savage,  there  also  is  the 
dog  ;  but  he  too  has  in  some  places  resumed  his  native  state 
and  habits,  and  hunts  in  packs.  Domestic  animals,  grain, 
fruit,  vegetables,  and  the  weeds  that  grow  with  them,  have 
been  conveyed  by  colonists  to  all  settlements.  Birds  and 
insects  follow  certain  plants  into  countries  in  which  they 
were  never  seen  before.  Even  the  inhabitants  of  the  waters 
change  their  abode  in  consequence  of  the  influence  of  man. 
Fish,  natives  of  the  rivers  on  the  coast  of  the  Mexican  Gulf, 
have  migrated  by  the  canals  to  the  heart  of  North  America; 
and  the  mytilus  polymorphus,  a  shell-fish  brought  to  the 
London  docks  in  the  timbers  of  ships  from  the  brackish 
waters  of  the  Black  Sea  and  its  tributary  streams,  has  spread 
into  the  interior  of  England  by  the  Croydon  and  other 
canals. 

The  influence  of  man  on  man  is  a  power  of  the  highest 
order,  far  surpassing  that  which  he  possesses  over  inanimate 
or  animal  nature  ;  and  at  no  time  did  the  mental  superiority 
of  the  cultivated  races  produce  such  changes  as  they  do  at 
present.  In  civilized  society,  the  number  of  people  in  the 
course  of  time  exceeds  the  means  of  sustenance,  which  com- 
pels some  to  emigrate  ;  others  are  induced  by  a  spirit  of 
enterprise  to  go  to  new  countries,  some  for  the  love  of  gain, 
others  to  fly  from  oppression. 

The  discovery  of  the  new  world  opened  a  wide  field  for 
emigration.  Spain  and  Portugal,  the  first  to  avail  them- 
selves of  it,  acquired  dominion  over  some  of  the  finest  parts 
of  South  America,  which  they  have  maintained,  till  lately  a 
change  of  times  has  rendered  their  colonies  independent 
states.  Liberal  opinions  have  spread  into  the  interior  of  the 
continent  in  proportion  to  the  facility  of  communication  with 
the  cities  on  the  coasts,  from  whence  European  ideas  are  dis- 
seminated. Of  this  Venezuela  is  an  instance,  where  civili- 
zation and  prosperity  have  advanced  more  rapidly  than  in  the 


370  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

southern  parts  of  Colombia,  where  the  Andes  are  higher,  and 
the  distance  from  the  Atlantic  greater.  Civilization  has  been 
impeded  in  many  of  the  smaller  states  by  war  and  those  broils 
inevitable  among  people  unaccustomed  to  free  institutions ; 
and  Brazil  would  have  been  farther  advanced  but  for  slavery, 
that  stain  on  the  human  race,  which  corrupts  the  master  as 
much  as  it  debases  the  slave. 

Some  of  the  native  South  American  tribes  have  sponta- 
neously made  considerable  progress  in  civilization  in  modern 
times;  others  have  been  benefited  by  the  Spanish  and  Por- 
tuguese colonists  ;  and  many  tribes  have  been  brought  into 
subjection  by  the  Jesuits,  who  have  instructed  them  in  some 
of  the  arts  of  social  life  :  but  these  Indians  are  not  more  reli- 
gious than  their  neighbours;  and,  from  restraint,  they  have 
lost  vigour  of  character  without  improving  in  intellect,  so 
that  they  are  now  either  stationary  or  retrograde.  But  ex- 
tensive regions  are  still  the  abode  of  men  in  the  lowest  state 
of  barbarism  ;  almost  all  those  inhabiting  the  silvas  of  the 
Orinoco,  Amazons,  and  Uruguay  are  cannibals. 

The  arrival  of  the  colonists  in  North  America  sealed  the 
fate  of  the  red  man.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Union,  too  late 
awakened  to  the  just  claims  of  the  ancient  proprietors  of  the 
land,  have  recently,  but  vainly,  attempted  to  save  the  rem- 
nant. The  white  man,  like  an  irresistible  torrent,  has 
already  reached  the  centre  of  the  continent  ;  and  the  native 
tribes  now  retreat  towards  the  far  west,  and  will  continue  to 
retreat  till  the  Pacific  Ocean  arrests  them,  and  the  animals 
on  their  hunting-grounds  are  exterminated.  The  almost  uni- 
versal dislike  the  Indian  has  shown  for  the  arts  of  peace  has 
been  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  his  decline,  although  the 
Cherokee  tribe,  which  has  lately  removed  to  the  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  is  a  remarkable  exception  :  the  greater  number 
of  them  are  industrious  planters  or  mechanics ;  they  have  a 
republican  government,  and  publish  a  newspaper  in  their 
own  language,  in  a  character  lately  invented  by  one  of  that 
nation. 

No  part  of  the  world  has  been  the  scene  of  greater  iniquity 
than  the  West  Indian  Islands,  and  that  perpetrated  by  the 
most  enlightened  nations  of  Europe.  The  native  race  has 
long  been  swept  away  by  the  stranger,  and  a  new  people, 
cruelly  torn  from  their  homes,  have  been  made  the  slaves  of 
hard  task-masters.     If  the  odious  participation  in  this  guilt 


GRADUAL    EXTINCTION    OF    SLAVERY.  371 

has  been  a  stain  on  the  British  name,  the  abolition  of  slavery 
by  the  universal  acclamation  of  the  nation  will  ever  form 
one  of  the  brightest  pages  in  their  history,  so  full  of  glory  ; 
nor  will  it  be  the  less  so  that  justice  was  combined  with 
mercy,  by  the  millions  granted  to  indemnify  the  proprietors. 
It  is  deeply  to  be  lamented  that  our  brethren  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Atlantic  have  not  followed  the  example  of  their 
fatherland  ;  but  in  limited  monarchies  the  voice  of  the  peo- 
ple is  listened  to,  while  republican  governments  are  more 
apt  to  become  its  slave.  The  northern  States  have  nobly 
declared  every  man  free  who  sets  his  foot  on  their  territory  ; 
and  the  time  will  come  when  the  southern  States  will  sacri- 
fice interest  to  justice  and  mercy. 

It  seems  to  be  the  design  of  Providence  to  supplant  the  savage 
by  civilized  man  inthecontinentof  Australiaas  well  asin  North 
America,  though  every  effort  has  been  made  to  prevent  the 
extinction  of  the  natives.  Most  of  the  tribes  in  that  continent 
are  as  low  in  the  rank  of  mankind  as  the  cannibal  Fuegians 
whom  Captain  Fitzroy  so  generously  but  ineffectually  at- 
tempted to  tame.  Some  of  the  New  Hollanders  are  faithful 
servants  for  a  time  ;  but  they  almost  always  return  to  their 
former  habits,  though  truly  miserable  in  a  country  where  the 
means  of  existence  are  so  scanty.  Animals  and  birds  are  very 
scarce  ;  and  there  is  no  fruit  or  vegetable  for  the  sustenance 
of  man. 

Slavery  has  been  a  greater  impediment  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  nations  of  Africa  than  even  the  physical  disad- 
vantages of  the  country,  the  great  arid  deserts  and  unwhole- 
some coasts.  A  spontaneous  civilization  has  arisen  in  various 
parts  of  southern  and  tropical  Africa,  in  which  there  has 
been  considerable  progress  in  agriculture  and  commerce  ;  but 
civilized  man  has  been  a  scourge  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  which 
has  extended  its  influence  into  the  heart  of  the  continent,  by 
the  encouragement  it  has  given  to  warfare  among  the  natives 
for  the  capture  of  slaves,  and  by  the  introduction  of  Euro- 
pean vices,  unredeemed  by  Christian  virtues.  Now  that 
France  and  England  have  united  in  the  suppression  of  this 
odious  traffic,  some  hope  may  be  entertained  that  their 
colonies  may  be  beneficial  to  the  natives,  and  that  other 
nations  may  follow  their  example,  in  which,  however,  they 
have  been  anticipated  by  three  Mohammedan  sovereigns. 
The  Sultan   has  abolished   the   slave-market  in   Constanti- 


372  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

nople  ;  Ibrahim  Pasha,  on  his  return  from  France  and  Eng- 
land, gave  freedom  to  his  bondsmen  in  Egypt;  and  the  Bey 
of  Tunis  has  abolished  slavery  in  his  dominions.     - 

The  French  are  zealous  in  improving  the  people  in  Al- 
giers ;  but  the  constant  state  of  warfare  in  which  they  have 
been  involved  ever  since  their  conquest,  must  render  their 
success  in  civilizing  the  natives  at  least  remote.  And  the 
inhabitants  of  those  extensive  and  magnificent  countries  that 
have  long  been  colonized  by  the  Dutch,  have  made  but 
little  progress  under  their  rule. 

The  British  colony  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  has  had 
considerable  influence  on  the  neighbouring  rude  nations, 
who  begin  to  adopt  more  civilized  habits.  When  Mr. 
Somerville  visited  Latakoo,  the  natives  were  scantily  co- 
vered with  skins,  and  they  saw  horses  for  the  first  time. 
Dr.  Smith,  who  visited  them  twenty  years  afterwards,  found 
the  chief  men  mounted  on  horseback,  wearing  hats  made  of 
rushes,  and  an  attempt  to  imitate  European  dress. 

Colonization  has  nowhere  produced  such  happy  eflfects  as 
among  the  amiable  and  cultivated  inhabitants  of  India,  who 
are  sensible  of  the  benefits  they  derive  from  the  impartial 
administration  of  just  and  equal  laws,  the  foundation  of 
schools  and  colleges,  and  the  extension  of  commerce. 

All  the  causes  of  emigration  have  operated  by  turns  on 
the  inhabitants  of  Britain,  and  various  circumstances  have 
concurred  to  make  their  colonies  permanent.  In  North 
America,  that  which  not  many  years  ago  was  a  British 
colony  has  become  a  great  independent  nation,  occupying  a 
large  portion  of  the  continent.  The  Australian  continent 
will  in  after  ages  be  peopled  by  British  nations,  and  will 
become  a  centre  of  civilization  which  will  extend  its  influ- 
ence to  the  uttermost  islands  of  the  Pacific.  These  splendid 
islands,  possessing  every  advantage  of  climate  and  soil,  with 
a  population  in  many  parts  far  advanced  in  the  arts  of  civilized 
life,  industry,  and  commerce,  though  in  others  savage,  will 
in  time  come  in  for  a  share  of  the  general  improvement. 
The  success  that  has  attended  the  noble  and  unaided  efforts 
of  Mr.  Brooke  in  Borneo,  shows  how  much  the  influence  of 
an  active  mind  can  eflf'ect. 

The  colonies  on  the  continent  of  India  are  already  centres 
from  which  the  culture  of  Europe  is  spreading  over  the 
East. 


FACILITIES    OF    INTERCOURSE.  373 

Commerce  has  no  less  influence  on  mankind  than  coloni- 
zation, with  which  it  is  intimately  connected  ;  and  the  nar- 
row limits  of"  the  British  Islands  have  rendered  it  necessary 
for  its  inhabitants  to  exert  their  industry  for  their  w^ell-being. 
The  riches  of  our  mines  in  coal  and  metals,  which  produce 
a  yearly  income  of  24,000,000/.  sterling,  is  a  principal  cause 
of  our  manufacturing  and  commercial  wealth  ;  bat  even 
with  these  natural  advantages,  more  is  due  not  only  to  the 
talents  and  enterprise,  but  to  our  high  character  for  faith 
and  honour. 

Every  country  has  its  peculiar  productions,  and  by  an 
unrestrained  interchange  of  the  gifts  of  Providence  the  con- 
dition of  all  is  improved.  The  exclusive  jealousy  with 
which  commerce  has  hitherto  been  fettered,  shows  the  length 
of  time  that  is  necessary  to  wear  out  the  effects  of  those 
selfish  passions  which  separated  nations  when  they  were  yet 
barbarous.  It  required  a  high  degree  of  cultivation  to  break 
down  those  barriers  consecrated  by  their  antiquity,  and  the 
accomplishment  of  this  important  change  evinces  the  rate  at 
w^hich  the  present  age  is  advancing. 

A  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  world  began  when  China 
was  opened  to  European  intercourse  ;  but  many  years  must 
pass  before  European  influence  can  penetrate  that  vast  em- 
pire, and  eradicate  those  illiberal  prejudices  by  which  it  has 
so  long  been  governed. 

Two  important  triumphs  yet  remain  to  be  achieved  by 
the  science  and  energy  of  man  over  physical  diflSculties, 
namely,  the  junction  of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans  at 
the  Isthmus  of  Central  America,  and  the  union  of  the  Red 
Sea  with  the  Mediterranean  at  Suez  :  when  these  are  accom- 
plished, the  expectation  of  Columbus  will  be  realized — of  a 
passage  to  the  East  Indies  by  the  Atlantic  ;  then  Alexandria, 
Venice,  and  Southern  Europe  will  regain,  at  least  in  part, 
the  mercantile  position  which  they  lost  by  the  discovery  of 
Vasco  de  Gama. 

The  advantages  of  colonization  and  commerce  to  the  less 
civilized  part  of  the  world  are  incalculable,  as  well  as  to 
those  at  home,  not  only  by  furnishing  an  exchange  for 
manufactures,  important  as  it  is,  but  by  the  immense  acces- 
sion of  knowledge  of  the  earth  and  its  inhabitants  that  has 
been  thus  attained. 
32 


374  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  history  of  former  ages  exhibits  nothing  to  be  com- 
pared with  the  mental  activity  of  the  present.  Steam,  which 
annihilates  time  and  space,  fills  mankind  with  schemes  for 
advantage  or  defence  ;  but  however  mercenary  the  motives 
for  enterprise  may  be,  it  is  instrumental  in  bringing  nations 
together,  and  uniting  them  in  mutual  bonds  of  friendship. 
The  facility  of  communication  is  rapidly  assimilating  national 
character.  Society  in  most  of  the  caphals  is  formed  on  the 
same  model  ;  individuality  is  only  met  with  in  the  pro- 
vinces, and  every  well-educated  person  now  speaks  more 
than  one  of  the  modern  languages. 

At  no  period  has  science  been  so  extensively  and  so  suc- 
cessfully cultivated  ;  the  collective  wisdom  and  experience 
of  Europe  and  the  United  States  of  America  is  now  brought 
to  bear  on  subjects  of  the  highest  importance  in  annual 
scientific  meetings,  where  the  common  pursuit  of  truth  is  as 
beneficial  to  the  moral  as  to  the  intellectual  character,  and 
the  noble  objects  of  investigation  are  no  longer  confined  to 
the  philosophic  few,  but  are  becoming  widely  diffused  among 
all  ranks  in  civilized  nations,  and  the  most  enlightened 
governments  have  given  their  support  to  measures  that 
could  not  have  been  otherwise  accomplished.  Simultaneous 
observations  are  made  in  numerous  places,  in  both  hemi- 
spheres, on  electricity,  magnetism,  on  the  tides  and  currents 
of  the  air  and  the  ocean,  and  those  mysterious  vicissitudes 
of  temperature  and  moisture  which  bless  the  labours  of  the 
husbandman  one  year  and  blight  them  in  another. 

The  places  of  the  nebulas  and  fixed  stars,  and  their  motions, 
are  know^n  with  unexampled  precision,  and  the  most  refined 
analyses  embrace  the  most  varied  objects.  In  the  far  hea- 
vens, from  unaccountable  disturbances  in  the  motions  of  Ura- 
nus, an  unknown  and  unseen  body  was  declared  to  be  re- 
volving on  the  utmost  verge  of  the  solar  system :  it  was  found 
in  the  very  spot  pointed  out  by  analysis  ;  and  on  earth,  though 
hundreds  of  miles  apart,  the  invisible  messenger,  electricity, 
instantaneously  conveys  the  thoughts  of  the  invisible  spirit 
of  man  to  man — results  of  science  sublimely  transcendental. 
The  attempt  would  be  vain  to  enumerate  the  improvements 
in  machinery  and  mechanics ;  to  follow  the  rapid  course  of 
discovery  through  the  complicated  mazes  of  magnetism  and 
electricity,  the  action  of  the  electric  current  on  the  polarized 


PROGRESS    OF    SCIENTIFIC    RESEARCH.  375 

sun-beam,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  modern  discoveries, 
leading  to  relations  hitherto  unsuspected  between  that  power 
and  the  complex  assemblage  of  visible  and  invisible  in- 
fluences in  solar  light,  by  one  of  which  nature  has  recently 
been  made  to  paint  her  own  likeness.  It  is  equally  impos- 
sible to  convey  an  idea  of  the  rapid  succession  of  the  varied 
and  curious  results  of  chemistry,  and  its  application  to  phy- 
siology and  agriculture  ;  moreover,  distinguished  w^orks  have 
lately  been  published  at  home  and  abroad  on  the  science  of 
mind,  which  has  been  so  successfully  cultivated  in  our  own 
country.  Geography  has  assumed  a  new  character  by  that 
unwearied  search  for  accurate  knowledge  and  truth  that 
marks  the  present  age,  and  physical  geography  is  altogether 
a  modern  science. 

The  spirit  of  nautical  and  geographical  discovery,  begun 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  by  those  illustrious  navigators  who 
had  a  new  world  to  discover,  is  at  this  day  as  energetic  as 
ever,  though  the  results  are  necessarily  less  brilliant.  Nei- 
ther the  long  gloomy  night  of  a  polar  winter  nor  the  dangers 
of  the  ice  and  the  storm  deter  our  gallant  seamen  from  seek- 
ing a  better  acquaintance  with  "  this  ball  of  earth,"  even 
under  its  most  frowning  aspect,  and  that  for  honour,  which 
they  are  as  eager  to  seek  even  in  the  cannon's  mouth.  Nor 
have  other  nations  of  Europe  or  America  been  without  their 
share  in  these  bold  adventures.  The  scorching  sun  and 
deadly  swamps  of  the  tropics  as  little  prevent  the  traveller 
from  collecting  the  animals  and  plants  of  the  present  crea- 
tion, or  the  geologist  from  investigating  those  of  ages  long 
gone  by.  Man  daily  vindicates  his  birth-right  as  lord  of  the 
creation,  and  compels  every  land  and  sea  to  contribute  to 
his  knowledge. 

The  most  distinguished  modern  travellers,  following  the 
example  of  Baron  Humboldt,  the  patriarch  of  physical  geo- 
graphy, take  a  more  extended  view  of  the  subject  than  the 
earth  and  its  animal  and  vegetable  inhabitants  afford,  and 
include  in  their  researches  the  past  and  present  condition  of 
man,  the  origin,  manners,  and  languages  of  existing  nations, 
and  the  monuments  of  those  that  have  been.  Geography  has 
had  its  dark  ages,  during  which,  the  situation  of  many  great 
cities,  and  spots  of  celebrity  in  history,  sacred  and  profane, 
had  been  entirely  lost  sight  of;  which  are  now  discovered 


376  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

by  the  learning  and  assiduity  of  the  modern  traveller.  Of 
this,  Italy,  Egypt,  the  Holy  Land,  Asia  Minor,  Arabia,  and 
the  basin  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  with  the  adjacent 
mountains  of  Persia,  are  remarkable  instances,  not  to  men- 
tion the  vast  region  of  the  East.  In  many  parts  of  the  world 
the  ruins  of  cities,  of  extraordinary  magnitude  and  workman- 
ship, show  that  there  are  wide  regions  of  whose  original  in- 
habitants we  know  nothing.  The  Andes  of  Mexico  and 
Peru  have  remains  of  civilized  nations  before  the  Incas;  Mr. 
Stephens  has  found  in  the  woods  of  Central  America  the  ruins 
of  great  cities,  adorned  with  sculpture  and  pictorial  writings, 
which  show  that  a  race  far  advanced  had  once  cultivated  the 
soil  where  these  entangled  forests  now  grow.  Picture-writ- 
ings have  been  discovered  by  Mr.  Schomburgk  on  rocks  in 
Guiana,  spread  over  an  extent  of  350,000  square  miles, 
similar  to  those  found  in  the  United  States  and  in  Siberia. 
Magnificent  buildings  still  exist,  in  good  preservation,  all  over 
Eastern  Asia,  and  many  in  a  ruinous  state  belong  to  a  period 
far  beyond  written  record. 

Ancient  literature  has  furnished  a  subject  of  still  more  in- 
teresting research,  which  shows  that  the  mind  of  man  is  es- 
sentially the  same  under  very  different  circumstances  ;  every 
nation  far  advanced  in  civilization  has  had  its  age  of  poetry, 
the  drama,  romance,  and  philosophy,  each  stamped  with  the 
character  of  the  people  and  times,  and  still  more  with  their 
religious  belief.  Our  profound  Oriental  scholars  have  made 
known  to  Europeans  the  refined  Sanscrit  literature  of  Hindos- 
tan,  its  schools  of  philosophy  and  astronomy,  its  dramatic 
writings  and  poetry,  which  are  original  and  beautiful. 

The  riches  of  Chinese  literature  and  their  valuable  geogra- 
phy were  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  French  Jesuits  of 
the  last  century,  and  perfected  by  the  French  philosophers 
of  the  present ;  to  that  nation  we  also  owe  our  knowledge 
of  the  letters  and  poetry  of  ancient  Persia:  and  from  the  time 
that  Dr.  Young  deciphered  the  inscriptions  on  the  Rosetta 
Stone,  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  and  picture-writing  have  been 
studied  by  the  learned,  and  we  have  reason  to  expect  much 
new  information  from  Professor  Lipsius,  of  Berlin.  The 
Germans  indeed  have  left  no  subject  of  ancient  literature 
unexplored,  even  to  the  language  spoken  at  Babylon  and 
Nineveh. 


PROGRESS    IN    THE    FINE    ARTS.  377 

The  press  has  overflowed  with  an  unprecedented  quantity 
of  literature,  some  of  standard  merit,  and  much  more  that  is 
ephemeral,  suited  to  all  ranks  and  on  every  subject ;  and  with 
the  aim,  in  our  own  country  at  least,  to  improve  the  people 
and  to  advocate  the  cause  of  virtue.  All  this  mental  energy 
is  but  an  effect  of  those  laws  which  regulate  human  affairs, 
and  include  in  their  generality  the  various  changes  that  tend 
to  improve  the  condition  of  man. 

The  fine  arts  do  not  keep  pace  with  science,  though  they 
have  not  been  altogether  left  behind.  Painting,  like  poetry, 
must  come  spontaneously,  because  a  feeling  for  it  depends 
upon  innate  sympathies  in  the  human  breast.  Nothing  ex- 
ternal could  affect  us  unless  there  were  corresponding  ideas 
within;  and  poetically  constituted  minds  of  the  highest  orga- 
nization are  most  deeply  impressed  with  whatever  is  excel- 
lent. All  are  not  gifted  with  a  strong  perception  of  the  beau- 
tiful, just  as  some  persons  cannot  see  certain  colours  or  hear 
certain  sounds.  Those  elevated  sentiments  which  constitute 
genius  are  given  to  few  ;  yet  something  akin,  though  infe- 
rior in  degree,  exists  in  most  men.  Consequently,  though 
culture  may  not  inspire  genius,  it  cherishes  and  calls  forth 
the  natural  perception  of  what  is  good  and  beautiful,  and  by 
that  means  improves  the  tone  of  the  national  mind,  and 
forms  a  counterpoise  to  the  all-absorbing  useful  and  com- 
mercial. 

Historical  painting  is  successfully  cultivated  both  in  France 
and  Germany.  The  Germans  have  modelled  their  school 
on  the  true  style  of  the  ancient  masters.  They  have  not,  in- 
deed, attained  their  richness  of  colouring,  but  many  of  their 
designs  are  poetry  embodied  ;  and  French  artists,  following 
in  the  same  steps,  have  produced  historical  works  of  extraor- 
dinary merit.  Pictures  of  the  genre  and  scenes  of  domestic 
life  have  been  painted  with  much  expression  and  beauty  by 
our  own  artists ;  and  British  landscapes  are  not  mere  por- 
traits of  nature,  but  pictures  of  high  poetical  feeling  ;  and  the 
perfection  of  their  composition  has  been  acknowledged  all 
over  Europe  by  the  popularity  of  the  engravings  that  illus- 
trate many  of  our  modern  books.  The  encouragement  given 
to  this  branch  of  art  at  home  may  be  ascribed  to  the  taste  for 
a  country  life  so  general  in  England.  Water-colour  paint- 
ing, which  is  entirely  of  British  growth,  has  now  become  a 
32* 


378  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

favourite  style  in  every  country,  and  is  brought  to  the  highest 
perfection  in  our  own. 

The  Italians  have  had  the  merit  of  restoring  sculpture  to 
the  pure  style  which  it  had  lost;  and  that  gifted  people  have 
produced  some  of  the  noblest  specimens  of  modern  art.  The 
greatest  genius  of  his  time  left  the  snows  of  the  far  North  to 
spend  his  best  days  in  Rome,  the  head-quarters  of  the  art; 
and  our  own  sculptors  of  the  most  eminent  talents  have  estab- 
lished themselves  in  Rome,  where  they  find  a  more  conge- 
nial spirit  than  in  their  own  country,  where  the  compositions 
of  Flaxman  were  not  appreciated  till  they  had  become  the 
admiration  of  Europe. 

The  opera,  one  of  the  most  refined  of  theatrical  amusements 
in  every  capital  city  in  Europe,  show^s  the  powder  and  excel- 
lence of  Italian  melody,  which  has  been  transmitted  from  age 
to  age  by  a  continued  succession  of  great  composers.  Ger- 
man music,  partaking  of  the  learned  character  of  the  nation, 
is  rich  in  original  harmony,  which  requires  a  cultivated  taste 
to  understand  and  appreciate. 

Italy  is  the  only  country  that  has  had  two  poetical  eras  of 
the  highest  order  ;  and   great  as  the  Latin   period  was,  that 
of  Dante  was  more  original  and  sublime.     The  Germans,  so 
eminent  in  every  branch  of  literature,  have  been  also  great 
as  poets:  the  power  of  Gothe's  genius  will  render  his  poems 
as  permanent  as  the  language.    France  is,  as  it  long  has  been, 
the  abode  of  the  Comic  Muse  ;  and  although  that  nation  can 
claim  great  poets  of  a  more  serious  cast,  yet  the  language 
and  the  habits  of  the  people  are  more  suited  to  the  gay  than 
the  grave  style.     Though  the  British  may  have  been  inferior 
to  other  nations  in  some  of  the  fine  arts,  yet  poetry,  immea- 
surably the  greatest  and  most  noble,  redeems,  and  more  than 
redeems  us.     The  nation  that  has  the  poetry  of  Chaucer, 
Spenser,  Shakspeare,  and  Milton,  with  all  the  brilliant  train 
down  nearly  to  the   present  time,  must  ever  hold  a  distin- 
guished place  even  as  an  imaginative  people.     Shakspeare 
alone  would  stamp  a  language  with  immortality.     The  British 
novels  stand   high  among  works  of  imagination  :  they  have 
generally  had  the  merit  of  advancing  the  cause  of  morality. 
Had  the  French  novelists  attended  more  to  this,  their  know- 
ledge of  the  human  heart  and  the  brilliancy  of  their  compo- 
sition would  have  been  more  appreciated. 


PROGRESS   OF    LITERATURE.  379 

Poetry  of  the  highest  stamp  has  fled  before  the  utilitarian 
spirit  of  the  age,  yet  there  is  as  much  talent  in  the  world, 
and  imagination  too,  at  the  present  time,  as  ever  there  was 
at  any  period,  though  directed  to  different  objects  ;  but  what 
is  of  more  importance,  there  is  a  constant  increase  of  liberal 
sentiment  and  disinterested  benevolence.  Three  of  the  most 
beneficial  systems  of  modern  times  are  due  to  the  benevolence 
of  English  ladies, — the  improvement  of  prison  discipline, 
savings-banks,  and  banks  for  lending  small  sums  to  the  poor. 
The  success  of  all  has  exceeded  every  expectation  at  home, 
and  these  admirable  institutions  are  now  adopted  abroad. 
The  importance  of  popular  and  agricultural  education  is  be- 
coming an  object  of  attention  to  the  more  enlightened  govern- 
ments; and  one  of  the  greatest  improvements  in  education 
is  that  teachers  are  now  fitted  for  their  duties  by  being  taught 
the  art  of  teaching.  The  gentleness  with  which  instruction 
is  conveyed  no  longer  blights  the  joyous  days  of  youth,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  encourages  self-education,  which  is  the  most 
efficient. 

The  system  of  infant  schools,  established  in  many  parts  of 
Europe  and  throaghout  the  United  States  of  North  America, 
is  rapidly  improving  the  moral  condition  of  the  people.  The 
instruction  given  in  them  is  suited  to  the  station  of  the  scho- 
lars, and  the  moral  lessons  taught  are  often  reflected  back  on 
the  uneducated  parents  by  their  children.  Moreover,  the 
personal  intercourse  with  the  higher  orders,  and  the  kind- 
ness which  the  children  receive  from  them,  strengthens  the 
bond  of  reciprocal  good  feeling.  Since  the  abolition  of  the 
feudal  system,  the  separation  between  the  higher  and  lower 
classes  of  society  has  been  increasing;  but  the  generous  ex- 
ertions of  individuals,  whose  only  object  is  to  do  good,  is 
now  beginning  to  correct  a  tendency  that,  unchecked,  might 
have  led  to  the  worst  consequences  to  all  ranks. 

The  voluntary  sacrifices  that  have  lately  been  made  to 
relieve  the  necessities  of  a  famishing  nation  show  the  humane 
disposition  of  the  age.  But  it  is  not  one  particular  and  ex- 
traordinary case,  however  admirable,  that  marks  the  general 
progress — it  is  not  in  the  earthquake  or  the  storm,  but  in  the 
still  small  voice  of  consolation  heard  in  the  cabin  of  the 
wretched,  that  is  the  prominent  feature  of  the  charities  of 
the  present  time,  when  the  benevolent  of  all  ranks  seek  for 


380  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

distress  in  the  abode  of  poverty  and  vice,  to  aid  and  to  reform. 
No  language  can  do  justice  to  the  merit  of  those  who  devote 
themselves  to  the  reformation  of  those  children  who  have 
hitherto  wandered  neglected  in  the  streets  of  great  cities,  in 
the  unpromising  task  in  which  they  have  laboured  with 
patience,  undismayed  by  difficulties  that  might  have  dis- 
couraged the  most  determined;  but  they  have  succeeded. 
The  language  of  kindness  and  sympathy,  never  before  heard 
by  these  children  of  crime  and  wretchedness,  is  saving  mul- 
titudes from  perdition.  But  it  would  require  a  volume  to 
enumerate  the  exertions  that  are  making  for  the  accommo- 
dation, health,  and  improvement  of  the  people,  and  the 
devotion  of  high  and  low  to  the  introduction  of  new  estab- 
lishments and  the  amelioration  of  the  old.  Noble  and 
liberal  sentiments  mark  the  proceedings  of  public  assemblies, 
whether  in  the  cause  of  nations  or  of  individuals  ;  and  the 
severity  of  our  penal  laws  is  mitigated  by  a  milder  system. 
Happily  this  liberal  and  benevolent  spirit  is  not  confined  to 
Britain  ;  it  is  universal  in  the  states  of  the  American  Union  ; 
it  is  spreading  widely  through  the  more  civilized  countries 
of  Europe.  A  noble  instance  that  has  lately  surprised  all 
Europe  shows  how  rapidly  the  wise  measures  of  a  truly 
great  and  good  sovereign  are  raising  a  fine  people  to  that 
place  among  the  nations  which  they  had  lost.  No  retrograde 
movement  can  now  take  place  in  civilization  ;  the  diffusion 
of  Christian  virtues  and  of  knowledge  insures  the  progres- 
sive advancement  of  man  in  those  high  moral  and  intellectual 
qualities  that  constitute  his  true  dignity.  But  much  yet 
remains  to  be  done  at  home,  especially  in  religious  instruc- 
tion and  the  prevention  of  crime  ;  and  abroad  millions  of 
our  fellow-creatures  in  both  hemispheres  are  still  in  the 
lowest  grade  of  barbarism.  Ages  and  ages  must  pass  away 
before  they  can  be  civilized  ;  but  if  there  be  any  analogy 
between  the  period  of  man's  duration  on  earth  and  that  of 
the  frailest  plant  or  shell-fish  of  the  geological  periods,  he 
must  still  be  in  his  infancy  ;  and  let  those  who  doubt  of  his 
indefinite  improvement  compare  the  state  of  Europe  in  the 
middle  ages,  or  only  fifty  years  ago,  with  what  it  is  at  pre- 
sent. Some,  who  seemed  to  have  lived  before  their  time, 
were  then  prosecuted  and  punished  for  opinions  which  are 
now  sanctioned  by  the  legislature  and  acknowledged  by  all. 


BENIGN    INFLUENCE    OF    CHRISTIANITY.  381 

The  moral  disposition  of  the  age  appears  in  the  refinement 
of  conversation.  Selfishness  and  evil  passions  may  possibly 
ever  be  found  in  the  human  breast ;  but  the  progress  of  the 
race  will  consist  in  the  increasing  power  of  public  opinion, 
the  collective  voice  of  mankind,  regulated  by  the  Christian 
principles  of  morality  and  justice.  The  individuality  of  man 
modifies  his  opinions  and  belief;  it  is  a  part  of  that  variety 
which  is  a  universal  law  of  nature  ;  so  that  there  will  pro- 
bably always  be  difference  of  views  as  to  religious  doctrine, 
which,  however,  will  become  more  spiritual  and  freer  from 
the  taint  of  human  infirmity  ;  but  the  power  of  the  Christian 
religion  will  appear  in  purer  conduct,  and  in  the  more  general 
practice  of  mutual  forbearance,  charity,  and  love. 


THE    END. 


LEA  AND  BLANCHARd's  PUBLICATIONS. 


SCHOOL   BOOKS. 


SCHMITZ  AND  ZUMPT'S  CLASSICAL  SERIES. 


VOLUME   I. 

O.   JULII    OAESARIS 

COMMENTARII   DE   BELLO   GALLICO. 

WITH  AN   INTRODUCTION,  NOTES,  AND  A  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX  IN   ENGLISH. 
ALSO,  A  MAP  OF  GAUL,  AND  ILITTSTRATIVE  ENGRAVINGS. 

In  one  handsome  18rao.  volume,  extra  cloth. 


VOIiUME    II.    (IVow  Ready.) 

PUBLM   VIRGILII    MARONIS 
C  ARMIN  A. 

WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION  AND  NOTES. 
In  one  handsome  18mo.  volume,  extra  cloth. 


VOI.UME  III.     (Now  Ready.) 

O.    ORISPI    SALLUSTII 

CATALINA     ET    JUGURTHA. 

WITH  INTRODUCTION  AND  NOTES  IN  ENGLISH. 

ALSO,  A  MAP  OF  NUMIDIA,  AND  OTHER  ILLUSTRATIYE  ENGRAVINGS. 

In  one  handsome  18mo.  volume,  extra  cloth. 

To  be  followed  by  the  works  of  other  Classical  authors  prepared  for 

Scliools. 

The  high  price  of  Classical  School  Books  has  long  been  a  subject  of  com- 
plaint both  to  teacher  and  student.  Costly  editions,  overburdened  with 
notes,  liave  been  in  use,  increasing  tlie  expenses  of  tuition  with  no  corre 
spending  benefit.  The  present  series  is  des'giied  to  remedy  this  evil. — - 
While  the  works  are  correctly,  clearly,  and  handsomely  printed,  with 
such  illustrations  as  tend  to  elucidate  the  text,  and  foot-noies  to  assist  the 
learner,  where  assistance  is  required  :  they  are  furnished  at  a  price  so 
exceedingly  low,  that  they  cannot  fail  to  become  in  almost  universal 
requisition.  The  Series  has  been  p'aced  under  the  editorial  management 
of  two  eminent  scholars  and  practical  teachers,  Dr.  Schmitz.  Rector  of 
the  High  School,  Edinburgh,  and  Dr.  Zlmpt,  Professor  in  the  University 
of  Berlin,  and  will  combine  the  following  advantages: — 


LEA  AND  BLANCHARd's  PUBLICATIONS. 


Sclimitz  and  Zumpt's  Classical  Series— Continued. 

1.  A  gradually  ascending  series  of  School  Books  on  a  uniform  plan,  so 
as  to  constitute  within  a  deBnite  number,  a  complete  Latin  Curriculum. 

i.  Certain  arrangements  in  the  rudimentary  volumes,  which  will  insure 
a  fair  amount  of  knowledge  in  Roman  literature  to  those  who  are  not  de- 
signed for  professional  life,  and  who  therefore  will  not  require  to  extend 
their  studies  to  the  advanced  portion  of  the  series. 

3.  The  text  of  each  author  will  be  such  as  has  been  constituted  by  the 
most  recent  collations  of  manuscripts,  and  will  be  prefaced  by  biographi- 
cal^and  critical  sketches  in  English,  that  pupils  may  be  made  aware  of 
the  character  and  peculiarities  of  the  work  they  are  about  to  study. 

4.  To  remove  difficulties,  and  sustain  an  interest  in  the  text,  explana- 
tory notes  in  English  will  be  placed  at  the  foot  of  each  page,  and  such 
comparisons  drawn  as  may  serve  to  unite  the  history  of  the  past  with  the 
realities  of  modern  times. 

5.  The  works,  generally,  will  be  embellished  with  maps  and  illuslra- 
tive  engravings, — accompaniments  which  will  greatly  assist  the  student's 
comprehension  of  the  nature  of  the  countries  and  leading  circumstances 
described. 

6.  The  respective  volumes  will  be  issued  at  a  price  considerably  less 
than  that  usually  charged  ;  and  as  the  texts  are  from  the  most  eminent 
sources,  and  the  whoie  series  constructed  upon  a  determinate  plan,  the 
practice  of  issuing  new  and  altered  editions,  vv^hich  is  complained  of  alike 
by  teachers  and  pupils,  will  be  altogether  avoided. 

From  among  the  testimonials  which  the  publishers  have  receiv- 
ed, they  append  the  following,  to  show  that  the  design  of  the  series 
has  been  fully  and  successfully  carried  out : — 

Central  High  School,  Phila.,  June  29, 1847. 
Gentlemen : — 

I  have  been  much  pleased  with  your  edition  of  Caesar's  Gallic  Wars, 
being  part  of  Schmitz  and  Zumpt's  classical  series  for  schools.  The  work 
seems  happily  adapted  to  the  wants  of  learners.  The  notes  contain  much 
valuable  information,  concisely  and  accurately  expressed,  and  on  the 
poiiits  that  really  require  elucidation,  while  at  the  same  time  the  book  is 
not  rendered  tiresome  and  expensive  by  a  useless  array  of  mere  learning. 
The  text  is  one  in  high  repute,  and  your  reprint  of  it  is  pleasing  to  the  eye. 
I  take  great  pleasure  in  commending  the  publication  to  the  attention  of 
teachers.  It  will,  1  am  persuaded,  commend  itself  to  all  who  give  it  a  fair 
examination.    Very  Respectfully,  Your  Obt.  Servt., 

JOHN  S.  HART, 
To  Messrs.  Lea  &  Blanchard.  Principal  Phila.  High  School. 

Gentlemen:—  Jwne  28, 1847. 

The  edition  of  "  Caesar's  Commentaries,"  embraced  in  the  Classical  Sec- 
tion of  Chambers'  Educational  Course,  and  given  to  the  world  under  the 
auspices  of  Drs.  Schmitz  and  Zurapt,  has  i-eceived  from  me  a  candid  ex- 
amination. I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying,  that  the  design  expressed  in 
the  notice  of  the  publishers,  has  been  successfully  accomplished,  and  that 
the  work  is  well  calculated  to  become  popular  and  useful.  The  text  ap- 
pears to  be  unexceptionable.  The  annotations  embrace  in  condensed 
form  such  valuable  information,  as  must  not  only  facilitate  the  research 
of  the  scholar,  but  also  stimulate  to  further  inquiry,  without  encouraging 
indolence.  This  is  an  important  feature  in  the  right  prosecution  of  clas- 
sical studies,  which  ought  to  be  more  generally  understood  and  appre- 
ciated. H.  HAVERSTICK, 

Pro/,  of  Ancient  Languages,  Central  High  School,  Phila. 


LEA  AND  BLANCHARd's  PUBLICATIONS. 


Schmitz  and  Zumpt's  Classical  Series— Continued. 

From  Edwakd  North,  Dexter  Professor  of  Classical  Literature,  Hamilton 
College,  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  3, 1S47. 
Your  plan  of  republishing  the  "  Classical  Series  of  Chambers'  Educa- 
tional Course,"  is  one  that  will  bring  you  in  a  large  harvest  of  thanks  from 
the  scholars  of  our  country.  The  names  of  Drs.  Schmitz  and  Zumpt  in 
connection  with  the  cheapness  and  typographical  beauty  of  the  works, 
will  doubtless  create  a  large  demand  for  them;  and  wherever  they  go, 
they  will  discharge  an  important  mission  by  reviving  and  extending  the 
love  of  classical  reading.  It  will  yield  me  pleasure  to  do  what  I  can  for 
the  furthering  of  this  excellent  emerpri.?e. 

From  Charles  Maktin,  Professor  of  Languages  in  Hampden- Sidney 

College,  Va.,  Dec.  18, 1^47. 

From  the  examination  I  have  been  able  to  give  it,  I  have  been  led  to 
judge  favorably  of  it.  and  the  design  you  have  of  publishing  a  series  in 
the  same  style.  The  well  known  ability  of  the  editors  will  satisfy  all 
scholars  that  the  wor-k  will  be  well  done.  The  cheap  style  of  the  edilione 
will  be  another  strong  recommendation  of  them  for  school  use. 

If,  on  the  examination  of  your  subsequent  issues,  I  shall  be  as  well 
pleased  as  I  have  been  with  this,  I  shall  take  great  pleasure  in  reconi- 
mending  them  to  my  classes,  and  to  teachers  in  all  the  schools  in  this 
part  of  Virginia.  Anything  which  will  cheapen  the  expenses  of  a  liberal 
education,  even  in  the  small  article  of  class-books,  and  thus  bring  it  within 
the  reach  of  a  larger  number  of  men.  deserves  and  will  receive  the  com- 
mendation of  every  patriot  and  Christian. 

From  Lyman  Coleman,  Professor  of  Latin,  College  of  New  Jersey,  Princ* 

ton.  N.  J.,  Sept.  28, 1847. 
I  have  examined  carefully  the  copy  of  Caesar  which  you  were  kind 
enough  to  send  to  me.    I  am  much  pleased  with  the  plan  and  execution 
of  the  work.    No  higher  authority  could  be  desired,  and  I  fully  believe 
that  the  notes  furnish  all  the  aid  that  the  scholar  ought  to  have. 

A  F.  Ross,  Professor  of  Languages  in  Bethany  College,  Bethany,  Va., 

Feb.  16, 1S48. 
I  have  lately  had  put  into  my  hands  a  copy  of  "  Caesar's  Commenta- 
ries," importing  to  be  the  first  of  an  Educational  Series  of  the  Classics 
proposed  to  be  published  by  you.  I  am  much  pleased  with  the  execution 
of  the  present  volume,  as  well  as  impressed  with  the  advantages  to  be 
gained  by  such  a  series  of  educational  classics  as  that  contemplated.-- 
Such  a  series  of  works  would  relieve  us  at  once  from  a  perplexing  mul- 
tiplicity of  texts,  and  an  amount  of  cumbrous,  and  often  worse  than  use- 
less annotation,  which  not  only  adds  greatly  to  the  expense,  but  is  calcu- 
lated to  repress  all  mental  energy  in  the  pupil,  by  assuming  in  the  outset 
that  he  is  to  have  no  credit  tor  either  industry  or  capacity.  The  editorial 
supervision  to  which  the  course  has  been  committed  is  a  sufhcient  gua- 
rantee of  its  fidelity,  and  I  shall  look  with  much  interest  to  the  compleiioa 
of  the  series. 

From  Rev.  B.  R.  Hall,  A.M.,  Professor  of  Ancient  Languages  in  the 
Classical  and  Mathematical  Institute,  Newburgh,  Orange  County,  New 
York,  Sept.  7,  1847. 
I  like  it  because  it  is  neat,  small,  and  not  overburdened  with  notes— the 

bane  of  all  learning.    *    *    ♦    *    I  shall  certainly  recommend  my  pupils 

to  get  this  edition. 


LEA  AND  BLANCHARD's  PUBLICATIONS. 

Schmitz  and  Zumpt's  Classical  Series  — Continued- 


From  Rev.  Chaitncet  Colton,   President^  and  Prof essor  of  Latin  Lan- 
guage and  Literature^  St.  John''s  College^  Cin.^  Ohio.,  March  7,  1848. 

I  beg  you  to  accept  my  thanks  for  this  attention,  with  the  expression  of 
my  favorable  judgment  of  this  edition,  and  of  the  plan  you  propose  of  a 
classical  series  by  these  eminent  scholars  I  shall  be  glad  to  see  them  as 
they  come  from  your  press,  and  I  doubt  not  shall  prefer  many  of  them  to 
those  we  have  at  present  in  use.  The  Caesar  t  prefer  on  several  ac- 
counts, and  am  making  daily  use  of  it. 

From  Ammi  B.  Hyde,  Professor  of  Languages  in  the  Oneida  Conference 
Seminary^  Cazenovia,  New  York,  Sept  2,  1847. 

We  find  much  to  admire  in  the  neat  and  business-like  form  of  the  work 
Its  notes  are  compact  and  sufficiently  copious,  and  the  text  is,  in  our 
view,  unusually  accurate  and  Caesar-like.    Our  opinion  of  the  work  is 
Buch  as  to  induce  us  to  bring  it  into  notice. 


From  E.  S.  Dixwell,  Latin  School,  Boston,  Sept.  13, 1847. 

It  commends  itself  by  its  cheapness  and  the  high  character  of  the 
editors. 


From  the  Rev.  S.  Davis,  Rector  of  Zion^s  Church,  Rome,  N.  Y.,  Sept  1, 1847. 

The  enterprise  of  publishing  a  classical  series  in  the  form  and  style 
with  which  you  have  commenced,  must  meet  the  approbation  and  en- 
couragement of  classical  scholars  generally.  The  learning  and  ability  of 
the  gentlemen  who  edit  the  series  are  a  sufficient  guarantee  for  their  cor- 
rectness and  accuracy. 


From  Thomas  Bonsall,  Classical  Teacher,  Columbus,  Ohio,  Sept.  12,1847. 

After  a  minute  examination  of  this  edition  of  Caesar,  I  consider  it  to  be 
decidedly  the  best  both  for  accuracy  and  elegance  of  execution  of  any  ever 
published  in  this  country.  *  *  *  I  consider  your  pul)lication  of  these 
works  as  supplying  a  desideratum  in  our  school  books,  which  is  likely  to 
be  advantageously  used  to  a  wide  extent. 


From  D.  H.  Peirson,  Elizabethtojvn.  New  Jersey,  Nov.  23, 1847. 

lam  glad  to  find  just  such  an  edition  of  Caesar.  The  publishers  have 
done  well,  and  the  editors  better  yet.  I  have  used  in  my  school  four  dif- 
ferent editions  of  Caesar,  none  of  which  do  1  think  half  so  good  as  yours. 
Either  they  are  burdened  with  notes  and  translations  so  as  to  leave  nothing 
for  the  pupil  to  do,  or  they  are  full  of  blunders  in  the  text.  Your  edition 
is  just  what  was  needed,  and  henceforth  I  shall  purchase  no  other. 

From  E.  M.  Rollo,  Binghamton  Academy,  N.  Y.,  Sept  15, 1847. 

— All  of  these  objections  are  avoided  in  the  edition  you  have  sent  me. 
Besides,  in  several  other  respects^  it  is  superior  to  any  edition  in  use  in 
this  country.  The  text  and  pointing  are  unquesiiona'bly  very  accurate.  *  * 
The  quality  of  the  paper  and  neat  typography  are  important  excellences. 
The  map  appears  to  be  correct  and  sufficiently  full  for  all  the  purposes  of 
the  student.  But  the  m.ost  important  improvement  in  the  work  is  the  ad- 
mirable Biography  of  Caesar  which  the  editors  have  prefixed  to  it.  This 
is  a  desideratum  wanting  in  all  other  editions  of  Caesar.  They  either 
have  none  at  all,  or  a  very  meagre  and  imperfect  one  The  notes  are 
well  calculated  to  elucidate  the  text  and  to  render  efficient  aid  to  the 
student. 


LEA   AND    BLANCHARD's    PUBLICATIONS. 


SCHOOL  BOOKS. 


BIRD'S  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


NOW   READY. 


BI<I!MI]X7TS  or  STikTUIliilj  FHIZiOSOFKlT, 

BEING    AST    EXPERIMENTAL     INTRODUCTION    TO    THE 

PHYSICAL    SCIENCES. 

ILLOSTRATED   WITH   OVER   THREE   HUNDRED   WOOD-CUTS. 

BY   GOLDING   BIRD,   M.D., 

Assistant  Physician  to  Guy's  Hospital. 
FROM  THE  THIRD  LONDON  EDITION. 

In  one  neat  volume. 

"By  the  appearance  of  Dr.  Bird's  work,  the  student  has  now  all  that  he  can  desire 
Jn  one  neat,  concise,  and  well-digested  volume.  The  elements  of  natural  philosop/iy 
are  explained  in  veiy  simple  language,  and  illustrated  by  numerous  wood-C'its."— 
Medical  Gazette. 

"A  volume  of  useful  and  beautiful  instruction  for  the  young." — Literary  Gazette. 

"  We  should  like  to  know  that  Dr.  Bird's  book  was  associated  with  every  boys'  and 
girls'  school  ttirougliout  the  kingdom." — Medical  Gazette. 

"  This  work  marks  an  advance  which  has  long  been  wanting  in  our  system  of  iiv- 
8truction.  Mr.  Bird  has  succeeded  in  producing  an  elementary  work  of  great  merift. 
'~At/ie7icEum. 


HERSCHELL'S  ASTRONOMY. 


A  THBATISB  02T   /LSTRON"  OSS'S', 

BY  SIR  JOHN  F.  W.  IIERSCHELL,  F.  R.  S.,  &c. 

WITH  NUMEROUS  PLATES  AND  WOOD-CUTS. 

A  NEW  EDITION,  WITH  A  PREFACE  AND  A  SERIES  OF  QUESTIONS, 

BY  S.  0.  WALKER. 

In  one  volume,  12mo. 


BREWSTER'S  OPTICS. 


ELEMSETTS   OPOPTICS, 

BY  SIR  DAVID  BREWSTER. 

WITH  NOTES  AND  ADDITIONS,  BY  A.  D.  BACHE,  LL.D 

Superintendent  of  the  Coast  Survey,  <kc. 

In  one  volume,  12mo.,  with  numerous  wood-cuts. 


LEA   AND    BLANCHARD's    PUBLICATIONS. 

IVIULLER'S  PHYSICS  AND  METEOROLOGY. 

'NOW    READY. 


PRINCIPLES  OF   PHYSICS   AND   METEOROLOGY 

BY  J.  MULLER, 

Professor  of  Physios  at  the  University  of  Freiburg. 

ILLUSTRATED  WITH  NEARLY  FIVK  HUNDRED  AND  FIFTY  EiNGBA VINOS  ON  WOOD, 

AND  TWO  COLORKD  PLATES. 

In  one  octavo  volume. 
TRATTSIiATOIl'S   PREFACE. 

In  laying  the  follnwin?  pa?es  before  the  public,  it  seems  necessary  to  stnte  that  the 
design  of  them  is  to  render  more  eiusily  accessible  a  greater  portion  of  tlie  e^eneral 
principles  of  Pliysics  and  Meteorology  than  is  usually  to  be  obtained,  without  the 
sacrifice  of  a  greater  amount  of  time  and  labour  than  most  persons  can  afford,  or  are 
wdling  to  make.  Tlie  subjects  of  which  this  volume  treats  are  very  numerous — more 
numerous,  in  fur.t,  than  at  first  sight  it  would  seem  possible  to  embrace  in  so  small  a 
compass  The  Author  has,  however,  by  a  system  of  the  most  judicious  selection  and 
condensation,  been  enabled  to  introduce  all  the  most  important  facts  and  theories 
relating-  to  Statics,  Hydrostatics,  Dynamics,  Hydrodynamics!,  Pnenmatics,  the  Laws 
of  the  Motions  of  Waves  in  general.  Sound,  the  Theory  of  Musical  Notes,  the  Voice 
and  Hearing,  Geometrical  and  Phvsical  Ojitics,  Magnetism,  Eleciricity  and  Galvanism, 
in  all  their  subdivisions.  Heat  and  ^Meteorology,  wiihin  the  space  of  an  ordinary  middle- 
sized  volume.  Of  the  manner  in  which  the  cranslator  has  executed  his  task,  it  be- 
hoves him  to  sav  nothing ;  he  lias  attempted  nothing  more  than  a  plain,  and  nearly- 
literal  version  o'f  the  original.  He  cannot,  however,  conclude  this  brief  introductory 
note  without  directing  the  attention  of  his  Readers  to  the  splendid  manner  in  which 
the  Publishers  have  illustrated  this  volume. 
Augitst,  1847. 

"  The  Phvsics  of  MuUer  is  a  work,  superb,  complete,  unique :  the  greatest  want 
known  to  E^nslish  Science  could  not  have  been  better  supphed.  The  work  is  of  sur- 
passing interest.  The  value  of  this  contribution  to  the  scientific  records  of  this 
country  may  be  duly  estimated  by  the  fact,  that  the  cost  of  the  original  drawings  asd 
engravings  alone  has  exceeded  tlie  sum  of  2000/." — Lancet.  March,  1817. 

"The  plan  adopted  by  MuUer  is  simple  :  it  reminds  us  of  the  excellent  and  popular 
treatise  published  rnanv  years  since  by  Dr.  Arnott,  but  it  takes  a  much  wider  rarge 
of  subjects.  Like  it,  all  the  necessary  explanations  are  given  in  clear  and  concise 
language,  without  more  than  an  occasional  reference  to  mathematics;  and  the  trea- 
tise is- most  abundantly  illustrated  with  well- executed  wood  engravings. 

"The  author  has  actually  contrived  to  comprise  m  about  five  hundred  pages,  in- 
cluding the  space  occupied  by  illustrations.  Mechanics,  the  Laws  of  Motion.  Acoustias, 
Light,  Magnetism,  Electricity,  Galvanism,  Electro-Magnetism,  Pleat,  and  Meteorology. 

'''  Medical  practitioners  and  students,  even  if  they  have  the  means  to  procure,  have 
certainly  not  the  time  to  study  an  elaliorate  treatise  in  every  braiich  of  science  :  and 
the  question  therefore  is,  simply,  whether  they  are  to  remain  wlioUy  ignorant  of  such 
subjects,  or  to  make  a  profitable  use  of  the  labours  of  those  who  have  the  happy  art 
of  saying  or  suggesting  much  in  a  small  space. 

"  From  our  examination  of  this  volume,  we  do  not  hesitate  to  recommend  it  to  our 
readers  as  a  useful  book  on  a  most  interesting  branch  of  science.  We  may  remark, 
that  the  translation  is  so  well  executed,  that  we  think  the  translator  is  doing  hunself 
injustice  by  couceaUng  his  name." — Loiuion  Medical  Gazette,  August,  1&47. 

NEARLY  READY. 


BEj3EiraB23'TS    OF    C  H  S  SS  I  S  TR  "Sr, 

INCLUDING 

THE  APPLICATIONS  OF  THE  SCIENCE  IN  THE  ARTS. 

BY  T.   GRAHAM,   F.R.S.,  &c. 

SECOND    VMERIC\N,    FROM    THE    SECOND    LONDON    EDITION. 

EDITED   AND    REVISED    BY    ROBERT   B  R  I  DG  ES,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  Franklin  Medical  College,  Philadelphia. 
In   one  lar<re  octavo  volume,  willi   numerous  wood-engravings. 
This  edition  v.'ill  be  found  enlarsred  and  improved,  so  as  to  be  fully  brought 
up  to  a  level  with  tlic  science  of  the  day. 


LEA    AND    BLAXCHARd's    PUBLICATIONS. 


SCHOOL  BOOKS. 


ARNOTT'S  PHYSICS. 


ELKMENTS  OF  PHYSICS;  OR,  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY, 

GENERAL   AND  MEDICAL. 

WRITTEN  FOR  UNIVERSAL  USE,  IN  PLAIV,  OR  NON-TECHNICAL  LANGUAGE. 

BYNIELL   ARNOTT,  IfeT.  D. 

A   NEW    EDITION,    BY    ISAAC    HAYS,    M.  D. 

Complete  in  one  octavo  volume,  with  nearly  two  hundred  wood-cuts* 

This  standard  work  has  been  loii^  and  favourably  known  as  one  of  the  best  popular 
expositions  of  the  interesting  science  it  treats  of.  it  is  extensively  used  m  many  of  the 
first  seminaries. 


ELEMENTARY  CHEIVilSTRY,  THEORETICAL 
AND  PRACTICAL, 

BY    GEORGE    F  O  W  N  E  S,  Ph.  D., 

Chemical  Lecturer  in  the  Middlesex  Hospital  Medical  School,  &c.,  <fec. 

WITH    NUMEROUS    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

EDITED,   WITH    ADDITIONS, 

BY   ROBERT  BRIDGES,   M.D., 

Professor  of  General  and  Pharmaceutical  Chemistry  in  the  Philadelphia  College  of 

Pharmacy,  ic,  <Jic. 

SECOND     AMERICAN     EDITION. 

In  one  large  duodecimo  volume,  sheep,  or  extra  cloth,  with  nearly 
two  hundred  wood-cuts. 

The  character  of  this  work  is  such  as  to  recommend  it  to  all  colleges  and  academies 
in  want  of  a  text-hook.  It  is  fully  brought  up  to  tlie  day,  containing  all  the  late  views 
and  discoveries  that  have  so  entirely  changed  the  face  of  the  science,  and  it  is  cont- 
pletely  illustrated  with  very  numerous  wood  engravinifs,  explanatory  of  all  the  ditfe- 
rent  processes  and  forms  of  apparatus.  Though  strictly  scientific,  it  is  written  with 
p-eat  clearness  and  simplicity  of  style,  rendering  it  easy  to  be  comprehended  by  those 
who  are  commencinsr  the  study. 

It  may  be  had  well  bound  in  leather,  or  neatly  done  up  in  strong  cloth.  Its  low 
iwice  places  it  within  the  reach  of  all. 

Extract  of  a  letter  from  Professor  ^■Mhngcfm,  of  WiUmm  and  Mary  College,  Va. 
"I  have  perused  the  book  with  much  pleasure,  and  find  it  a  most  admirable  work  ; 
and,  to  my  mind,  such  a  one  as  is  just  now  much  needed  in, schools  and  colleges.  *  ♦  * 
All  the  books  I  have  met  with  on  chemistry  are  either  too  puerile  or  too  erudite,  and 
I  confess  Dr.  Fownes'  book  seems  to  be  the  happiest  medium  I  have  seen,  and  admi- 
rably suited  to  till  up  the  hiatus." 

Though  this  work  has  been  so  recently  published,  it  has  already  been  adopted  as  a 
text-book  by  a  large  number  of  the  higher  schools  and  colleges  throughout  the  country, 
and  many  of  the  Medical  Institutions.  As  a  work  for  the  upper  clas.ses  in  academies 
and  the  junior  students  of  colle2;es,  there  has  been  but  one  opinion  expressed  concern- 
ing it,  and  it  may  now  be  considered  as  The  Text-Book  for  the  Chemical  Student. 


/ 


LEA    AND    BLANCHARD  S    PUBLICATIONS. 


SCHOOL  BOOKS. 


BOLMAR'S  FRENCH  SERIES. 

New  editions  of  the  following  works,  by  A.  Bolmar,  forming,  in  con- 
nection with  "  Bolnmr's  Levizac,"  a  complete  series  for  the  acquisition  of 
the  French  language :— 

A  SEI.ECTION  OP  ONE  HUNDRED  PERRIX»S 

FABLES, 

ACCOMPANIED  BY  A  KEY, 

Gontainirer  the  text,  a  literal  and  free  translation,  arrang-ed  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
pomt  out  the  diiierunce  between  the  French  and  EugLisli  idioni,  &c.,  m  1  vol.,  12nio. 

A  COLLECTION  OF  COLLOaUIAL.  PHRASES, 

ON  EVERY  TOPIC  NECESSARY  TO  MAINTAIN  CONVERSATION. 

Arranged  under  dilTerent  heads,  with  numerous  remarks  on  the  peculiiir  pronuncia- 
tion and  uses  of  various  words  ;  the  whole  so  disposed  as  considerably  to  facihtate 
the  acquisition  of  a  correct  pronunciation  of  the  French,  iu  1  vol.,  ISmo. 

L.ES  AVENTURES  DE  TELEMAQ,UE  PAR  FENELON, 

In  1  vol.,  12mo.,  accompanied  by  a  Key  to  the  first  eight  books,  in  1  vol ,  12mo.,  con- 
tainiiig,  hke  the  Faliles,  the  text,  a  literal  and  free  translation,  intended  as  a  seqaeL 
to  the  Fables.    Either  volume  sold  separately. 

ALIi  THE  FRENCH  VERBS, 

Both  regular  and  irregular,  in   a  small  volume. 


BUTLER'S  ANCIENT  ATLAS. 

ILII  ATLAS  or  iLK'OISKTT  CS^SOGRAPHIT, 

BY  SAMUEL  BUTLER,  D.  D., 
Late  Lord  Bishop  of  Litchfield. 

CONT AIMING   TWENTY-ONE    COLOURED   MAPS,   AND   A    COMPLETE   ACCENTUATED 

INDEX. 

In  one  octavo  volume,  half-bound. 


BUTLER'S  ANCIENT  GEOGRAPHY. 

GSOGRAFIIZA.  CI.ASSZCA, 

OH.  THE  APPLICATION  OF  ANCIENT  GEOGRAPHY  TO  THE 

CLASSICS, 

BY  SAMUEL  BUTLER,   D.  D.,  F.R.S. 

REVISED  BY  HIS  SON. 

FIFTH  AMERICAN,  FROM  THE  LAST  LONDON   EDITION. 

WITH   QUESTIONS   ON  THE    MAPS,  BY   JOHN  FROST, 
In  one  duodecimo  volume,  half-bound,  to  match  the  Atlas. 


LEA   AND    BLANCHARd's   PUBLICATIONS. 


SCHOOL  BOOKS. 


WHITE'S  UNIVERSAL  HISTORY. 


LATELY    PUBLISHED, 

SIiBIiIIIZTTS  OF  XriTIVZillS^Zi  SZISTOHIT, 

ON  A  NEW  AND  SYSTEMATIC  PLAN; 

FROM  THE  EARLIEST  TIMES  TO  THE  TREAT V  OF  VIENNA;   TO  WHICH 

IS  ADDED,  A  SUMMARY  OF  THE  LEADING  EVENTS  SINCE 

THAT   PERIOD,   FOR    THE   USE   OF   SCHOOLS 

AND  PRIVATE  STUDENTS. 

BY  H.  -WHITE,  B.A., 

TRINITY    COLLEGE,    CAMBBIDGE. 

WITH   ADDITIONS   AND    QUESTIONS, 

BY  JOHN  S.   HART,   A.M., 

Principal  of  the  Philadelphia  High  School,  and  Professor  of  Moral  aad  Men'al  Science,  &c.,  && 

In  one  volume,  large  duodecimo,  neatly  bound  with  Maroon  Baclcs. 

This  work  is  arranged  on  a  new  plan,  which  is  believed  to  combine  the 
advantages  of  those  formerly  in  use.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts,  corre- 
sponding with  Ancient,  Middle,  and  Modern  History  ;  which  parts  are  again 
subdivided  into  centuries,  so  that  the  various  events  are  presented  in  the 
order  of  time,  while  it  is  so  arranged  that  tlie  annals  of  each  country  can 
be  read  consecutively,  thus  combining  the  advantages  of  both  tlie  plans 
hitherto  pursued  in  works  of  this  kind.  To  guide  the  researches  of  the  stu- 
dent, there  will  be  found  numerous  synoptical  tables,  with  remarks  and 
sketches  of  literature,  antiquities,  and  manners,  at  the  great  chronological 
epochs. 

The  additions  of  the  American  editor  have  been  principally  confined  to 
the  chapters  on  the  history  of  this  country.  The  series  of  questions  by  him 
will  be  found  of  use  to  those  who  prefer  that  system  of  instruction.  For 
those  who  do  not,  the  publishers  have  had  an  edition  prepared  without  the 
questions. 

This  work  has  already  passed  through  several  editions,  and  has  been 
introduced  into  many  of  the  higher  Schools  and  Academies  tlirougliout  the 
country.  From  among  numerous  recommendations  v.'hich  they  have  re- 
ceived, the  p  iblisliers  annex  the  following  from  the  Deputy  Superintendent 
of  Common  Schools  for  New  York: 

Secretary's  Office,  )  State  of  New  York, 

Department  of  Common  Schools.       )  Albany,  Oct.  14/A,  1845. 

Messrs.  Lea  4-  Blanchird  : 

Gentlemen: — I  have  examined  the  copy  of  "White's  Universal  History,"  which  yon 
were  so  obhging  as  to  send  me,  and  ctieerfully  and  fully  cnnctir  in  tlip  commendations 
of  its  value,  as  a  comprehensive  and  enlightened  sun^ey  ofthe  Ancient  and  Modern 
World,  which  many  of  the  most  competent  judg-es  have,  as  I  perceive,  already  bestowed 
upon  it.  It  appears  to  me  to  be  admirably  adapted  to  the  piirposes  of  our  public 
schools  ;  and  I  unhesitatingly  approve  of  its  introducliou  into  those  seminaries  of  ele- 
mentary instruction.  Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

SAMUEL  S.  RANDALL, 
Beptfty  Superintcndeni  Common  Schools, 


LEA    AND    BLANCHARD's    PUBLICATIONS. 


POPULAR  SCIENCE. 


PHILOSOPHY  IN  SPORT,  MADE  SCIENCE 

IN   EARNEST; 

BEING   AN   ATTEMPT  TO   ILLUSTRATE   THE   FIRST   PRINCI- 

PLES  OF  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY,  BY  THE  AID 

OF  THE   POPULAR  TOYS  AND 

SPORTS  OF  YOUTH. 

FROM  THE  SIXTH  AND  GREATLY  IMPKOVED  LONDON  EDITION. 

In  one  very  neat  royal  18ino.  volume,  with  nearly  one  hundred  illustrationg 
on  wood.    Fine  extra  crimson  cloth. 

"Messrs.  Lea  &  Blanchard  have  issued,  in  a  beautiful  manner,  a  handsome  book, 
called  '  Philosophy  in  Sport,  made  Soience  in  Earnest.'  This  is  an  admirable  attempt 
to  illustrate  the  first  principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,  by  the  aid  of  the  popular  toys 
and  sports  of  youth.  Useful  mformation  is  conveyed  in  an  easy,  gracefnl.  yet  dignified 
manner,  and  rendered  easy  to  the  smiplest  understanding.  The  book,  is  an  admirabte 
one,  and  must  meet  with  universal  favour." — N.  Y.  Evening  Mirror. 


ENDLESS    AMUSEMENT 

JUST   ISSUED. 


ENDLESS   AMUSEMENT, 

A    COLLECTION    OF 

MEARLY  FOUR  HUNDRED  ENTERTAINING  EXPERIMENTS  IN 
VARIOUS  BRANCHES  OF  SCIENCE, 

INCLUmNG 

ACOUSTICS,  ARITmiETIC,  CHEMISTRY,  ELECTRICITY,  HYDRAULICS,  HY- 
DROSTATICS, MAGNETISM,  MECHANICS,  OPTICS,  WONDERS  OF 
THE  AIR  PUMP,  ALL  THE  POPULAR  TRICKS  AND 
CHANGES  OF  THE  CARDS,  &;c.,  <kc. 

TO    WHICH    IS    ADDED, 

A   COIWCPLETE  SYSTEIYI  OF  PYHOTECHNY, 

OR  THE  ART  OF  MAKING  FIRE-WORKS: 

THE  WHOLE  SO   CLEARLY    EXPLAINED   AS   TO    BE  WITHIN   REACH    OF 
THE   MOST    LIMITED    CAPACITY. 

WITH    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FROM   THE   SEVENTH  LONDON  EDITION. 

In  one  neat  royal  18mo.  volume,  fine  extra  crimson  cloth. 

"  Tl  contains  evervthin?  that  can  please  the  grave  or  the  gay.  It  is  '  endless  amuss 
n»enl,'  and  the  publishers  mia;ht  have  added,  instruction.  What  a  help  to  a  duU 
guthering.  or  what  an  able  adjunct  to  a  children's  party  !  It  may  be  introduced  to  the 
jscientific  or  to  the  faniilv  circle,  and  to  each  it  will  give  instruction  and  pleasure.  It 
18  filled  with  illustrations.  We  shall  give  extracts  from  it  occa^iionally."— LotZy'i 
Bvok. 


LEA  AND  BLANCHARD*S  PUBLICATIONS. 


SOMERVILLE'S    PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

BY  MARY  SOMERVILLE. 

AUTHOR    OF    "CONNECTION    OF   THE   PHYSICAL   SCIENCES,"    ETC. 
In  one  neat  royal  \2mo.  volume,  extra  cloth. 

CONTENTS.— Geology— Form  of  ihe  Great  Conlineut— Highlands  of 
the  Great  Continent— Mouniain  Systems  of  the  Great  Continent— Africa 
—American  Conlinent— liOW  Lands  of  :?outh  America— Central  America 
—North  America— Greenland— Australia— The  Ocean— Springs— Euro- 
pean Rivers— African  Rivers— Asiatic  Rivers— River  Systems  of  North 
America— Rivers  of  South  America— Lakes— The  Atmosphere— Vegeta- 
tion—Vegetation  of  the  Great  Continent- Flora  of  Tropical  Asia— African 
piora— Australian  Flora— American  Vegetation- Distribution  of  Insects 
—Distribution  of  Fishes— Distribution  of  Reptiles— Distribution  of  Birds 
—Distribution  of  Mammalia— Distribution,  Conditions  and  Future  Pros- 
pects of  the  Human  Race. 

While  reading  this  work  we  could  not  help  thinking  how  mtereslmg, 
as  well  as  useful,  geography  as  a  branch  of  education  might  be  made  in 
our  schools.  In  many  of  them,  however,  this  is  not  accomplished.  It  is 
to  be  hoped  that  this  defect  will  be  remedied  ;  and  that  in  all  our  educa- 
tional institutions  Geography  will  soon  be  taught  in  the  proper  way.  Mrs. 
Somerville's  work  may,  in  this  respect,  be  pointed  to  as  a  model.— TajT* 
Edinburgh  Magazine.^  September,  1848. 

ElZSiLBII^raS   FOU   THIS   'S'OUZa'G. 

FROM  THE  WORKS  OF  SIR  WALTER  SCOTT. 

In  two  very  handsome  l&mo  volumes,  with  beautiful  plates,  done  up  in 

crimso7i  extra  cloth. 
Messrs.  Lea  &  Blanchard  deserve  the  thanks  of  all  the  little  people  in 
the  land  for  these  delightful  volumes,  which  are  as  agreeable  to  read  gm 
they  are  attractive  in  appearance.-  N.  Y.  Literary  World. 

TALES  AND  STORIES  FROM  HISTORY. 

BY  AGNES  STRICKLAND, 
AUTHOR  OF  "  LIVES  OF  THE  QUEENS  OF  ENGLAND,"  ETC. 
In  one  handsome  royal  ISmo.  volume,  crimson  extra  cloth,  with  illustrations. 
In  these  pretty  tales  from  the  legendary  and  authentic  history  of  Eng- 
land and  Continental  Europe,  Miss  Strickland  has  hit  a  happy  mean  in 
presenting  to  the  mind  of  youth,  fact  in  its  most  fascinating,  and  fiction  in 
its  least  objectionable  garb.  It  is  a  little  work  which  will  be  dog's  eared, 
and  pored  over  with  absorbing  interest  by  the  school-boy. — Ball.  Patriot. 

The  above  works  will  be  found  admirable  reading  books  for  schools. — 
Lea  &  Blanchard  also  publish  the  following,  which  are  suitable  to  ad- 
vanced classes. 
A  POPULAR  TREATISE  ON  VEGETABLE  PHYSIOLOGY.    By 

W.  B.  Carpenter,  M.D.  In  one  royal  12mo.  volume,  with  wood-cuts. 
THE  ANCIENT  AVORLD;  OR,  PICTURESQUE  SKETCHES  OF 
CREATION.  By  D  T.  Ansled,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  G.  S.  In  one  royal 
12mo.  volume,  with  150  wood-cuts. 
THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  FOUR  SEASONS,  SPRING,  SUMMER, 
AUTUMN  AND  WINTER;  an  Essay  principally  concerning  Natu- 
ral Phenomena  admitting  of  interpretation  by  Chemical  Science,  and 
illustrating  passages  of  Scripture.  By  Thomas  Griffiths.  In  one  largo 
royal  l2mo.  volume,  with  60  wood-cuts. 


LEA   AND    BLANCHARd's    PUBLICATIONS. 


BOY'S  TREASURY  OF  SPORTS, 

THE  BOY'S  TREASURY  OF  SPORTS,  PASTIMES 
AND  RECREATIONS. 

WITH   FOUR   HUNDRED   ILLUSTRATIONS. 
BY    SAMUEL   WILLIAMS. 

IS  NOW  READY. 

Ill  one  very  neat  volume,  bound  in  extra  crimson  cloth  ;  handsomely  printed 

and  illustrated  with  engravings  in  the  first  style  of  art,  and 

containing  about  six  hundred  and  fifty  articles. 

A  present  for  all  seasons. 

PREFACE. 

This  iUustrated  Manual  of  "  Sports,  Pastimes,  and  Recreations,"  has  been  prepared 
with  especial  regard  to  the  Health,  Exercise,  and  Rational  Enjoyment  of  the  young 
readers  to  whom  it  is  addressed. 

Every  variety  of  commendable  Recreation  will  be  found  in  the  following  pages. 
Jlrst,  you  have  the  little  Toys  of  the  Nursery ;  the  Tops  and  JIarbles  of  the  Play- 
ground ;  and  the  Balls  of  the  Play-room,  or  the  smooth  Lawn. 

Then,  you  have  a  number  of  Pastimes  that  sei-ve  to  gladden  the  fireside ;  to  light 
up  many  faces  right  joyfully,  and  make  the  parlour  re-echo  with  mirth. 

Next,  come  the  Exercising  Sports  of  the  Field,  the  Green,  and  the  Play-ground; 
followed  by  the  noble  and  truly  Enghsh  game  of  Cricket. 

Gymnastics  are  next  admitted;  then,  the  delightful  recreation  of  Swimming;  and 
the  healthful  sport  of  Skating. 

Archery,  once  the  pride  of  England,  is  then  detailed  ;  and  very  properly  followed 
by  Instructions  in  the  graceful  accomphsliment  of  Fencing,  and  the  manly  and  en- 
livening exercise  of  Riding. 

Angling,  the  pastime  of  childhood,  boyhood,  manhood,  and  old  age,  is  next  de- 
scribed ;  and  by  attention  to  the  instructions  here  laid  down,  the  lad  with  a  stick 
and  a  string  may  soon  become  an  expert  Angler. 

Keeping  Animals  is  a  favourite  pursuit  of  boyhood.  Accordingly,  we  have  described 
how  to  real-  the  Rabbit,  the  Squirrel,  the  Dormouse,  the  Guinea  Pig,  the  Pigeon,  and 
the  Silkworm.  A  long  chapter  is  adapted  to  the  rearing  of  Song  Birds  ;  the  several 
varieties  of  which,  and  their  respective  cages,  are  next  described.  And  here  we  may 
hint,  that  kindness  to  Animals  invariably  denotes  an  excellent  disposition  ;  for,  to  pet  a 
little  creature  one  hour,  and  to  treat  it  harshly  the  next,  marks  a  capricious  if  not  a  cruel 
temper.    Humanity  is  a  jewel,  which  every  boy  should  be  proud  to  wear  in  liis  breast. 

We  now  approach  the  more  sedate  amusements — as  Draughts  and  Chess  ;  two  of 
the  noblest  exercises  of  the  ingenuity  of  the  human  mind.  Dominoes  and  Bagatelle 
follow.  With  a  knowledge  of  these  four  games,  who  would  pass  a  duU  hour  in  the 
dreariest  day  of  winter  ;  or  who  would  sit  idly  by  the  fire  ? 

Amusements  in  Arithmetic,  harmless  Legerdernam,  or  sleight-of-hand,  and  Tricks 
with  Cards,  will  delight  many  a  family  circle,  when  the  business  of  the  day  is  over, 
and  the  book  is  laid  aside. 

Although  the  present  volume  is  a  book  of  amusements.  Science  has  not  been  ex- 
cluded from  its  pages.  And  why  should  it  be  ?  when  Science  is  as  entertaining  as  a 
fairy  tale.  The  changes  we  read  of  in  little  nursery-books  are  not  more  amusing 
than  the  changes  in  Chemistry,  Optics,  Electricity,  Magnetism,  (tc.  By  understanding 
these,  you  may  almost  become  a  little  Magician. 

Toy  Balloons  and  Paper  Fireworks,  (or  Fireworks  without  Fire,)  come  next.  Then 
follow  Instructions  for  Modelling  in  Card-Board;  so  that  you  may  build  for  yourself 
a  palace  or  a  carriage,  and,  in  short,  make  for  yourself  a  little  paper  world. 

Puzzles  and  PMadoxes,  Enigmas  and  Kiddles,  and  Talking  with  the  Fingers,  next 
make  up  plenty  of  exercise  for  "  Guess,"  and  "  Guess  again."  And  as  you  have  the 
*  Keys"  in  youi  ovm  hand,  you  may  keep  your  friends  in  suspense,  and  make  yourself 
as  mysterious  as  the  Sphynx. 

A  chapter  of  Miscellanies — useful  and  amusing  secrets — winds  up  the  volume. 

The  "  Treasury"  contains  upwards  of  four  hundred  Engravings  ;  so  that  it  is  not  only 
a  collection  of  "  secrets  worth  knowing,"  but  it  is  a  book  of  pictures,  as  full  of  prints 
as  a  Christmas  pudding  is  of  plums. 

It  may  be  as  well  to  mention  that  the  "  Treasury"  holds  many  new  games  that 
have  never  before  been  printed  in  a  book  of  this  kind.  The  old  games  have  been 
described  afi-esh.    Thus  it  is,  altogether,  a  new  book. 

And  now  we  take  leave,  wishing  you  many  hours,  and  days,  and  weeks  of  enjoy- 
ment over  these  pages;  and  we  hope  that  you  may  be  as  happy  as  this  book  is  briioful 
of  amusement. 


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